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International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Strong Labour Market Inequality of Opportunities at
the Workplace for Supporting a Long and Healthy
Work-Life: The SeniorWorkingLife Study
Lars L. Andersen
1,
* , Per H. Jensen
2
, Annette Meng
1
and Emil Sundstrup
1
1
2
*
National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
Centre for Comparative Welfare Studies, Aalborg University, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark
Correspondence: [email protected]
Received: 21 August 2019; Accepted: 2 September 2019; Published: 5 September 2019
Abstract:
Most European countries are gradually increasing the state pension age, but this may run
counter to the capabilities and wishes of older workers. The objective of this study is to identify
opportunities in the workplace for supporting a prolonged working life in different groups in the
labour market. A representative sample of 11,200 employed workers
≥
50 years responded to
15 questions in random order about opportunities at their workplace for supporting a prolonged
working life. Respondents were stratified based on the Danish version of the International Standard
Classification of Occupations (ISCO). Using frequency and logistic regression procedures combined
with model-assisted weights based on national registers, results showed that the most common
opportunities at the workplace were possibilities for more vacation, reduction of working hours,
flexible working hours, access to treatment, further education and physical exercise. However, ISCO
groups 5–9 (mainly physical work and shorter education) had in general poorer access to these
opportunities than ISCO groups 1–4 (mainly seated work and longer education). Women had poorer
access than men, and workers with reduced work ability had poorer access than those with full work
ability. Thus, in contrast with actual needs, opportunities at the workplace were lower in occupations
characterized by physical work and shorter education, among women and among workers with
reduced work ability. This inequality poses a threat to prolonging working life in vulnerable groups
in the labour market.
Keywords:
senior worker; aging; occupational health; public health; workplace; sustainable employment
1. Introduction
Since the 1980s, the combination of increasing lifespan and decreasing birth rates have led to
marked demographic changes in most European countries with a larger proportion of older adults
above the official retirement age [1,2]. As a consequence, politicians in most Western countries have
implemented reforms to increase the retirement age in an attempt to balance the increased economic
costs of an ageing population [3,4]. The most far-reaching pension reform in Europe has occurred in
Denmark, where the state pension age has been set to life expectancy minus 14.5 years, meaning that
state pension age is expected to increase gradually from 65 years in 2018 to 67 years in 2022 and further
to 74.5 years in 2070 [5]. Such a drastic reform can be considered a large-scale natural experiment
involving millions of people and should be closely followed and evaluated.
While the Danish pension reform makes sense from an economic point of view, it should be
investigated whether people will be able or willing to work until they reach 74.5 years of age. Calculations
conducted by the European Commission [6] estimate that in 2070 the average age of retirement will be 68,
indicating that there will be a large gap between the expected average age of retirement and the state
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pension age. This gap occurs due to push [7] and jump [8] factors. Push refers to involuntary retirement,
e.g., due to poor health. Studies indicate that the number of years lived in good health is lagging behind
the increase in life expectancy [9], most probably because chronic health problems increase with age [10],
while individual physical capacity inherently declines with age [11]. Thus, by increasing the official
retirement age, more workers are likely to be pushed out of the labour market. Jump refers to some older
workers developing a psychological distance from their work and identifying with non-work roles, i.e.,
they may find it fulfilling and more important to spend their time with their partner or to be with their
grandchildren [12,13] or simply enjoy leisure time, travelling, etc. [8].
In Denmark, a major challenge exists in narrowing down the discrepancy between the future state
pension age and the average age of retirement. This may be achieved by improving health and work
ability among those subject to push factors and improving the motivation to work longer among those
subject to jump. In this endeavour, the workplace may hold or create a number of opportunities for
promoting health and work ability and motivating employees to stay longer. Most studies analysing
workplace strategies and practices in relation to older workers use company surveys among employers
— instead of employees — as the empirical basis [14,15]. However, the employer may see things in a
more positive view than what is experienced by the employees. In this study, we analyse how different
occupational segments of older employees perceive programmes and opportunity structures offered
at the workplaces.
Previous studies have found that there is a social gradient in health; less educated people, often
with physically strenuous work, have, on average, a shorter lifespan, fewer years in good health and
reduced work ability as compared to higher educated segments of the workforce [16–20]. Especially
women with short or no education and high physical work demands are vulnerable to be pushed out of
the labour market due to poor health [21]. It is therefore of interest to know whether these differences
correspond to differences in programmes and opportunity structures offered at the workplaces. That is,
are opportunities at the workplace to prolong working life more prevalent among occupational groups
dominated by high as compared to low educated segments of the labour force, or is it more prevalent
among older workers with good work ability as compared to older workers with poorer work ability?
And what is the role of gender? These research questions have so far been underappreciated.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to assess opportunities in the workplace for supporting a
prolonged working life in different groups of the labour market. The analyses use representative data
from Danish workers aged
+50
years participating in the SeniorWorkingLife study.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
The SeniorWorkingLife study is registered as a cohort study in
ClinicalTrials.gov
(Identifier:
NCT03634410) and the first wave was carried out between July and October 2018 [22]. For the first
wave, Statistics Denmark drew a probability sample of 30,000 Danes
≥
50 years (18,000 employed, 7000
unemployed, 3000 on voluntary early retirement, 2000 on disability pension). Potential participants
received an invitation and a personal questionnaire-link via an online digital mailbox linked to
their Danish social security number (e-Boks). Subsequently, we merged the survey responses with
high-quality national registers about occupational groups (Danish version of ISCO) through the unique
social security number assigned to all Danish residents at birth or immigration. For the analyses of
the present paper, we only included currently employed wage earners. Among these, the response
percentage to the full-length questionnaire was 56% (i.e., those also responding to other questions
about, e.g., work environment and health not included in the present article). However, those who
replied only partly (i.e., to the questions mentioned below) were also included in the present analyses.
Further, only those registered in ISCO groups 1 to 9 were included, i.e., excluding ISCO group 0
(Armed Forces Occupations) due to a small number of observations (n
=
56). Thus, the total sample
size included in the present analyses was 11,200 (~62% of 18,000) currently employed workers of ISCO
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groups 1 to 9 responding to the questions about available opportunities at their workplace. Table
1
shows characteristics of the included population.
Table 1.
Demographics, lifestyle, work and work ability among men and women in ISCO group 1–4
(mainly seated work) and 5–9 (mainly physical work), respectively. Results are either mean (SD) or
prevalence as a percentage (95% CI).
ISCO 1–4
Mainly Seated Work
Men
N
Age (mean)
Smoking (% yes)
Alcohol (% men
>
14 and % women
>
7 per week)
BMI (mean)
Physical activity work (%)
1. Seated
2. Standing or walking
3. Standing or walking with a lot of lifting or carrying
4. Heavy or fast work that is physically strenuous
Weekly working hours (mean)
Expected retirement age (mean)
Reduced work ability (%)
3418
56.9 (5.8)
14 (13–15)
16 (15–17)
26.6 (4.3)
70 (68–71)
21 (20–23)
8 (7–9)
1 (1–2)
41.0 (9.1)
67.5 (5.0)
23 (21–24)
Women
3823
56.2 (4.9)
14 (13–16)
18 (17–19)
25.4 (5.0)
63 (62–65)
26 (24–28)
9 (8–10)
1 (1–2)
37.3 (7.6)
66.2 (3.5)
23 (21–24)
ISCO 5–9
Mainly Physical Work
Men
2543
56.9 (5.5)
26 (24–28)
12 (10–13)
27.4 (4.8)
19 (17–21)
24 (22–26)
43 (40–45)
14 (12–16)
39.1 (10.1)
66.8 (4.4)
40 (38–42)
Women
1416
56.2 (4.5)
26 (24–29)
9 (8–11)
26.0 (5.8)
10 (8–12)
23 (20–25)
52 (49–55)
15 (13–17)
35.0 (7.4)
65.7 (3.0)
38 (35–41)
Variable
2.2. Stratification into Occupational Groups
We stratified respondents into nine occupational groups based on the official Danish version of
the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) [23]. The Danish ISCO is a six-digit
classification, structured as a five-level hierarchical structure based on information from high-quality
national registers at Statistics Denmark, and divides the Danish labour market into 563 professional
groups, each containing a number of closely related work functions. The skill requirements in each
ISCO group range from I (most basic) to IV (most advanced). For the present study, we used the
first-level ISCO groups: (1) Managers (level III and IV skill requirement), (2) Professionals (level IV
skill requirement), (3) Technicians and Associate Professionals (level III skill requirement), (4) Clerical
Support Workers (level II skill requirement), (5) Services and Sales Workers (level II skill requirement),
(6) Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers (level II skill requirement), (7) Craft and Related
Trades Workers (level II skill requirement), (8) Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers (level II
skill requirement) and 9) Elementary Occupations (level I skill requirement). The majority of ISCO
groups 1–4 have seated work (76%, 57%, 74% and 75%, respectively), and the majority of ISCO groups
5–9 have physical work (86%, 83%, 89%, 72% and 89%, respectively).
2.3. Questionnaire
Participants responded to multiple-choice questions about opportunities at the workplace, with
fifteen response options provided in random order, e.g., senior counselling, reduction of working
hours, flexible working hours, development of competencies, additional days off, reduced workload
and responsibility, better salary and health promotion offers [22]. The option ‘none of the above’ was
given at the bottom of the multiple-choice questions as the sixteenth option. All the response options
are shown in Table
2.
Furthermore, the participants were asked to rate their work ability compared with lifetime best;
“Please rate your current work ability on a scale of 0–10, where 0 is unable to work and 10 is lifetime best work
ability”.
The concept of work ability was developed by Ilmarinen to reflect the balance between human
resources and the demands of work. This question has previously been validated in relation to a
number of health outcomes, e.g., the risk of future disability pension [24]. Good work ability was
defined as a score of 8–10 on the 0–10 scale [24].
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Table 2.
Availability of different opportunities at the workplace among men and women in ISCO groups
1–4 and 5–9, respectively, provided as prevalence (percentage of respondents) and 95% confidence
intervals. ORs for ISCO group 5–9 (ref: ISCO groups 1–4) and women (ref: men) are provided in the
last two columns.
ISCO 1–4
Mainly Seated Work
Available Opportunities at the Workplace
Men
n
=
3418
Reduced time
Reduced working hours (without financial compensation)
Additional vacation
Reduced working hours (with financial compensation)
Flexibility
Flexible working hours
Health promotion & treatment
Treatment (e.g., physical therapy, psychologist)
Physical exercise
Health check
Smoking cessation course
Healthy diet
Adaptability
Continuing education
Reduction of workload and responsibility
Changing job area
Counselling
Senior counselling
Economy
Improvement of salary
Economic bonus if later retirement
None of the above
34 (32–35)
25 (24–27)
9 (8–10)
37 (35–39)
30 (28–32)
17 (16–19)
15 (14–17)
11 (10–12)
10 (9–11)
20 (19–22)
13 (12–14)
10 (9–11)
14 (13–15)
4 (4–5)
2 (2–3)
19 (17–20)
Women
n
=
3823
32 (30–33)
24 (22–25)
8 (7–9)
30 (28–32)
23 (22–25)
13 (12–15)
8 (7–9)
11 (10–12)
6 (5–7)
20 (18–21)
8 (7–9)
6 (5–7)
9 (8–10)
3 (3–4)
1 (1–2)
21 (20–23)
ISCO 5–9
Mainly Physical Work
Men
n
=
2543
20 (18–22)
17 (15–18)
6 (5–7)
17 (16–19)
26 (24–28)
10 (8–11)
14 (12–16)
10 (9–12)
5 (4–6)
10 (9–12)
7 (6–8)
8 (6–9)
5 (4–6)
4 (3–4)
3 (2–3)
28 (26–31)
Women
n
=
1416
19 (17–21)
18 (16–21)
5 (3–6)
11 (9–13)
22 (19–24)
12 (10–14)
8 (7–10)
12 (10–14)
4 (3–5)
12 (10–14)
6 (5–8)
5 (4–7)
4 (3–5)
3 (2–4)
2 (1–3)
28 (25–30)
2.4. Statistics
Using the SurveyFreq procedure of SAS version 9.4 (SAS institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA),
we produced estimates of prevalence (percentage) and 95% confidence intervals, and using the
SurveyLogistic procedure we produced estimates of odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals
for the chance of choosing each different option of the multiple-choice questionnaire (i.e., having the
opportunity or not). Thus, we used a binary logit model (Optimization technique: Fisher’s scoring.
Variance adjustment: degrees of freedom). In contrast to the ‘normal’ frequency and logistic procedures
of SAS, the SurveyFreq and SurveyLogistic procedures take into account sampling clusters and strata.
Analyses were controlled for age, sex and ISCO group. For sex, men were used as a reference, i.e.,
ORs for women. For occupation, ISCO group 1–4 (mainly seated work) was used as a reference, i.e.,
estimates represent ORs for group 5–9 (mainly physical work). For work ability, individuals with
good work ability (8–10 on a scale of 0–10) were used a reference, i.e., estimates represent ORs for
individuals with at least 30% reduced work ability (0–7 on a scale of 0–10). Model-assisted weights
were used for the SurveyFreq and SurveyLogistic procedures to produce representative estimates
and 95% confidence intervals. These weights were based on information from high-quality national
registers (Statistics Denmark) and accounted for age, sex, highest completed education, occupational
industry, family type, family income and origin [22].
3. Results
Table
1
shows the descriptive background information of the population divided by ISCO groups
1–4 and 5–9 and by sex. There were both similarities and differences between the groups. For example,
age, lifestyle and weekly work hours were quite similar across the groups, whereas work-related
physical activity and the proportion of workers with reduced work ability were much higher among
ISCO groups 5–9 than groups 1–4.
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Figure
1
shows a colour-intensity map of opportunities at the workplace in the nine separate ISCO
groups. The most common opportunities were more vacation, reduction of working hours, flexible
work hours, access to treatments (e.g., physical therapy, psychologist), further education and physical
exercise. However, the overall picture based on the colour-intensity map shows that ISCO groups 5–9
(mainly physical work and shorter education) in general, have poorer access to these than ISCO groups
1–4 (mainly seated work and longer education).
Int. J. Environ Res. Public Health
,x
5 of
. MAN
. PROF
. TECH
. CLER
. SERV
. AFF
. CRA
. PMOA
. ELEM
Redu ed ti e
Redu ed orki g hours ithout
fi a ial o pe satio
Additio al a atio
Redu ed orki g hours ith
fi a ial o pe satio
Fle i ilit
Fle i le orki g hours
Health pro otio & treat e t
Treat e t e.g. ph si al therap ,
ps hologist
Ph si al e er ise
Health he k
S oki g essatio ourse
Health diet
Adapta ilit
Co ti ui g edu atio
Redu tio of orkload a d
respo si ilit
Cha gi g jo area
Cou selli g
Se ior ou selli g
E o o
I pro e e t of salar
E o o i o us if later retire e t
No e of the a ove
Figure 1.
Colour-intensity map of available opportunities at the workplace in the ISCO groups.
Figure 1.
Colour-intensity map of available opportunities at the workplace in the
9
ISCO groups.
Prev lence (percent ge of respondents) is provided in e ch box M n gers (MAN) Profession ls
Prevalence (percentage of respondents) is provided in each box. 1. Managers (MAN), 2. Professionals
(PROF),
(PROF),
3. Technicians and Associate Professionals (TECH), 4.
4. Clerical Support Workers (CLER),
Technicians and Associate Professionals (TECH),
Clerical Support Workers (CLER), 5
Services and S les Workers (SERV)
Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers (AFF),
5. Services and Sales Workers (SERV), 6. Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers (AFF),
Craft and Related Trades Workers
(CRA), Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers
7. Craft and Related Trades Workers
(CRA), 8
8.
Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers (PMOA),
Elementary Occupations (ELEM).
9. Elementary Occupations (ELEM).
Tables
2
2
Avail bility of different opportunities at the workplace among men and women in ISCO
of
and
3,
respectively, show the prevalence (percentage) and odds ratios (ORs)
Table
groups 1–4
the
5–9, respectively,
2
shows
as prevalence (percentage
opportunities
and
reduced
opportunities at
and
workplace. Table
provided
that the most widespread
of respondents)
were
95%
time,
confidence intervals. ORs
additional
group 5–9
and health
groups 1–4)
however, the ORs calculations
flexible working hours,
for ISCO
vacation
(ref: ISCO
promotion;
and women (ref: men) are
provided in the
these were not
of Table
3
show that
last two columns.
equally distributed across groups. Thus, Table
3
shows that ISCO
groups 5–9 compared with 1–4 were less likely to have access to 11 out of the 15 different
ISCO 5–9
opportunities
ISCO 1–4
(ORs ranging from 0.33 to 0.87), and were more likely not to have any of the opportunities at all (OR
Mainly Seated Work
inly Physical Work
Availabl opportunities t th workplac
Men
Women
Men
Women
1.57). Women compared with men were less likely to have access to 11 out of the 15 opportunities (ORs
n = 3418
n = 3823
n = 2543
n = 1416
ranging from 0.51 to 0.83). Individuals with reduced work ability compared with good work ability
Reduced time
were less likely to
hours (without fin
9 out of the 15 opportunities (ORs
32 (
have access to
ncial compens tion)
ranging from
(
0.63
2)
0.81), and
to
19 (
Reduced working
34 (
5)
3)
20
1)
were more likely not to have
vacation
the opportunities at all (OR 1.21).
24 (
any of
Individuals
17 (
reduced
(
work
with
8)
Additional
25 (
7)
5)
18
1)
Reduced
more likely
(with financial
access
tion)
(8–10)
8 (7–9)
6 (5–7)
(3–6)
ability were
working hours
to only have
compens
to 1 out of the
9
15 opportunities (reduced working
5
hours
Fle ibility
with financial compensation, OR 1.27).
Flexible working hours
He lth promotion & tre tment
Treatment (e g physical therapy, psychologist)
Physical exercise
Health check
Smoking cessation course
Healthy diet
Adaptability
Continuing education
Reduction of workload and responsibility
Changing job area
Counselling
Senior counselling
37 (
9)
30 (
2)
17 (
9)
11 (9–13)
30 (
2)
17 (
9)
15 (
7)
11 (
2)
10 (9–11)
20 (
2)
13 (
4)
10 (9–11)
14 (
5)
23 (
5)
13 (
5)
8 (7–9)
11 (
2)
6 (5–7)
20 (
1)
8 (7–9)
6 (5–7)
9 (8–10)
26 (
8)
10 (8–11)
14 (
6)
10 (9–12)
5 (4–6)
10 (9–12)
7 (6–8)
8 (6–9)
5 (4–6)
22 (
4)
12 (
4)
8 (7–10)
12 (
4)
4 (3–5)
12 (
4)
6 (5–8)
5 (4–7)
4 (3–5)
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Table 3.
Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the availability of different opportunities at the
workplace in ISCO 5–9 vs. 1–4, among women vs. men, and among those with reduced work ability
vs. those with full work ability. Values less than 1 mean that there is less of a chance of having that
opportunity at the workplace. Statistically significant findings are marked in bold.
Available Opportunities at the Workplace
Reduced time
Reduced working hours (without financial compensation)
Additional vacation
Reduced working hours (with financial compensation)
Flexibility
Flexible working hours
Health promotion & treatment
Treatment (e.g. physical therapy, psychologist)
Physical exercise
Health check
Smoking cessation course
Healthy diet
Adaptability
Continuing education
Reduction of workload and responsibility
Changing job area
Counselling
Senior counselling
Economy
Improvement of salary
Economic bonus if later retirement
None of the above
OR (95% CI)
a
ISCO 5–9 vs. 1–4
0.50 (0.45–0.55)
0.64 (0.57–0.72)
0.62 (0.51–0.74)
0.33 (0.30–0.37)
0.87 (0.79–0.97)
0.65 (0.57–0.75)
0.92 (0.80–1.06)
1.00 (0.86–1.15)
0.54 (0.44–0.66)
0.48 (0.42–0.55)
0.60 (0.51–0.71)
0.75 (0.63–0.90)
0.38 (0.31–0.45)
0.83 (0.65–1.06)
1.31 (0.96–1.80)
1.57 (1.42–1.75)
Women vs. Men
0.94 (0.85–1.03)
0.96 (0.87–1.07)
0.83 (0.71–0.97)
0.69 (0.63–0.76)
0.72 (0.65–0.79)
0.86 (0.76–0.97)
0.51 (0.44–0.58)
1.06 (0.93–1.22)
0.63 (0.53–0.75)
0.98 (0.88–1.10)
0.65 (0.56–0.75)
0.58 (0.49–0.69)
0.61 (0.53–0.71)
0.71 (0.56–0.89)
0.64 (0.46–0.90)
1.07 (0.96–1.18)
Reduced vs. Full Work Ability
0.98 (0.88–1.09)
0.81 (0.72–0.91)
1.27 (1.06–1.51)
0.74 (0.66–0.84)
0.92 (0.83–1.03)
0.77 (0.66–0.89)
0.81 (0.69–0.94)
0.89 (0.76–1.04)
0.71 (0.58–0.88)
0.78 (0.68–0.90)
0.99 (0.83–1.17)
0.63 (0.51–0.77)
0.73 (0.61–0.88)
0.70 (0.53–0.94)
0.71 (0.49–1.04)
1.21 (1.08–1.36)
a, adjusted for gender, age and ISCO group.
4. Discussion
The main finding of this study is that a clear Matthew effect exists, i.e., those with the greatest
needs have the poorest possibilities at the workplace for supporting a long and healthy work-life.
That is, those at highest risk of being pushed out of the labour market, i.e., workers in job groups
characterized by short education and physical work, as well as those with reduced work ability, had
fewer opportunities in general. Opportunities at the workplace targeting mainly the best-off seniors
may reduce the numbers of employees being pushed out of the labour market only to a very limited
extent, and the challenge of raising the retirement age remains unresolved.
The most widespread opportunities reported were reduced time, flexible working hours, additional
vacation and health promotion, but these were not equally distributed across the different segments.
Reduced working hours can be one way to reduce the overall workload and thereby reduce the risk of
push in workers with high work demands and poor health, which can be especially relevant for many
employees in ISCO groups 5–9. However, only about 19–20% of those in ISCO groups 5–9 (Table
2)
had the opportunity for reduced working hours and even fewer (5–6%) with financial compensation.
It should be investigated if a more flexible system with a gradual reduction in working hours with
financial compensation could be a cost-beneficial method of prolonging working life, especially among
those with high physical work demands. Reduced working hours, more vacation and flexible working
hours may also be a way to reduce jump, as more leisure time and freedom to choose may reduce the
desire to completely leave the labour market for those in good health, which is the case for many older
workers in ISCO groups 1–4.
Opportunities for workplace health promotion and treatment possibilities were also poorer in
ISCO groups 5–9 than in groups 1–4. Of the specific workplace health promotion offers, physical
exercise was possible only for 10–17% across all ISCO groups (Table
2).
This is surprising, as there is
consistent evidence through systematic reviews of positive effects of physical exercise for health [25],
also when performed at the workplace [26–28]. Thus, a challenge still exists in communicating this
knowledge to workplaces, both those with seated and physical work. National campaigns targeted at
workplaces may be a way forward [29]. Health technology may also be a strategy to promote increased
physical activity at the workplace among those with seated work [30].
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In ISCO groups 1–4 and 5–9, respectively, 23% and 38–40% of the older workers had reduced
work ability compared to their lifetime best. Prospective cohort studies with register follow-up
show that reduced work ability is a major push factor, markedly increasing the risk of involuntary
early retirement [24,31]. Thus, opportunities for health promotion and better working conditions are
especially important for employees with reduced work ability. The present study shows that the reality
in workplaces is the exact opposite, i.e., for 9 out of 15 possibilities (Table
3)
employees with reduced
work ability had fewer opportunities (ORs ranging from 0.63 to 0.81) in the workplace to support a
prolonged and healthy work-life, i.e., lower access to possibilities such as physical exercise, health
checks, healthy diet, flexible working hours and changing job area. Previous studies show that lack
of physical exercise, poor musculoskeletal capacity and obesity, as well as high mental and physical
work demands, and lack of autonomy increase the risk for poor work ability [32]. Although causal
inferences should be drawn with care, lack of opportunities at the workplace may be part of the reason
for the reduced work ability in these employees. Regardless of the direction of causality, providing
relevant opportunities at the workplace may be used to assist workers with reduced work ability, and
thereby prevent them from being pushed out of the labour market. However, in some cases it may
be easier for workplaces to replace than support workers with reduced work ability, especially in job
groups characterized by short education. Of all the available opportunities, workers with reduced
work ability only had better possibilities for reduced working hours with financial compensation,
likely because, in Denmark, compensation for reduced working hours in certain types of jobs (e.g., flex
jobs and sheltered jobs) is paid by the municipalities and not by the employer.
Another interesting finding is that men and women do not seem to have equal opportunities.
Thus, for 11 out of 15 possibilities (Table
3)
women were offered measures to a lesser extent than men
(ORs ranging from 0.51 to 0.86) that may help them prolonging working life. Such differences can be
the outcome of a strong horizontal gender division of labour in the Danish labour market, meaning that
men and women are positioned in different occupations and subject to different industrial relations
regulations. It should also be mentioned that due to jump reasons, women retire earlier than men [8].
Therefore, if the overall aim is to increase the employment rate among older workers it is important
that employers develop measures that meet the needs of women, e.g., measures to improve work–life
balance and in general provide more opportunities at the workplace for prolonging working life.
At the same time, women with short education and high physical work demands are more likely to be
pushed out due to poor health [21]. This highlights the need for effective workplace policies to ensure
a prolonged working life especially for this group of workers.
Strengths and Limitations
This study has both strengths and limitations. Non-response is always a limitation when
attempting to produce representative estimates in this type of study. However, to ensure representative
estimates, Statistics Denmark drew a probability sample among all eligible Danish residents age 50 years
or older and combined this with model-assisted weights based on high-quality national registers. Thus,
we can be fairly certain that the estimates are representative of workers in Denmark aged 50 years or
older. The ISCO system is used internationally to group occupations containing a number of closely
related work functions and is a better predictor of health outcomes than socioeconomic class [23].
The Danish version of ISCO is based on high-quality registers from Statistics Denmark and is highly
reliable. Thus, using ISCO to classify occupations is a strength of the study. Additionally, a lack of
knowledge of existing opportunities at the workplace may have also influenced the responses in the
present study, highlighting the potential of communicating company policies, and opportunities to the
workers. Finally, a follow-up in national registers on labour market attachment in the years to come is
necessary to investigate whether the factors included in the present study can actually help to prolong
working life.
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5. Conclusions
In contrast with actual needs, workplace opportunities for supporting a prolonged work life
were lower among older workers in occupations with physical work, in women and in workers with
reduced work ability. This inequality poses a threat to prolonging working life in vulnerable groups in
the labour market.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, L.L.A., P.H.J., A.M. and E.S.; Data curation, L.L.A. and E.S.; Formal
analysis, L.L.A.; Funding acquisition, L.L.A. and P.H.J.; Investigation, L.L.A., P.H.J., A.M. and E.S.; Methodology,
L.L.A., P.H.J., A.M. and E.S.; Project administration, L.L.A.; Writing—original draft, L.L.A.; Writing—review &
editing, L.L.A., P.H.J., A.M. and E.S.
Funding:
This study was supported by a grant from the Danish foundation TrygFonden.
Acknowledgments:
The authors are grateful for important discussions and input during the development of the
study to the many people from Aalborg University, Team Arbejdsliv, National Research Centre for the Working
Environment, Statistics Denmark, as well as to the members of the Advisory Board.
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data Sharing Statement:
Researchers interested in using the data should contact the project leader Prof. Lars
L. Andersen.
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