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TR 174
Technical Report 174
CAMP
CENTURY
EVOLUTION
OF
CONCEPT
AND
HISTORY OF
DESIGN
CONSTRUCTION AND
PERFORMANCE
by
Elmer F. Clark
OCTOBER 1965
U.S. ARMY
MATERIEL
COMMAND
COLD REGIONS RESEARCH & ENGINEERING LABORATORY
HANOVER, NEW HAMPSHIRE
)
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TR 174
t•Technical
Report 174
CAMP
CENTURY
EVOLUTION
OF
CONCEPT
AND
HISTORY OF
DESIGN
CONSTRUCTION AND
PERFORMANCE
by
Elmer F. Clark
OCTOBER 1965
U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
COLD REGIONS RESEARCH & ENGINEERING LABORATORY
HANOVER, NEW HAMPSHIRE
DA Project. IV025001A130
I
Qualified requesters may obtain copies of this report from DDC
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ii
PREFACE
The information presented in this report was obtained under the
authority of the following projects: Project 8S66-02-001, "Cold Re-
gions
Research"; Task 8S66-02-001-01, "Research in Snow, Ice, and
Frozen Ground"; Task 8S66-02-001-02, "Experimental Engineering
in
Snow, Ice, and Frozen Ground", Task 8S66-02-001-03, "'Regional
Planning, Cold Regions Research"; and Project 6X61-01-001, "Pre-
ventive Medicine", Task 6X61-01-001-01, "Greenland Waste Disposal".
Camp Century was constructed by the U.
S. Army Polar Research
and Development Center (now the U. S. Army Research Support
Group). The U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Labo-
ratories, with consultation and assistance from the U. S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and guidance from the
Chief of Engineers, prepared preliminary design specifications for
the camp. The PM-ZA Nuclear Power Plant was designed by ALCO
Products, Incorporated, Schenectady, New York, under contract to
the U. S. Army Engineer District, Eastern Ocean. The Nuclear
Power Plant buildings were designed by the engineering firm of Met-
calf and Eddy, Boston, Massachusetts.
Lt. Col. Elmer F. Clark, the author, before retiring from active
duty in the Army, was in command of the U. S. Army Engineer Arctic
Task Force and the Greenland R&D program from 1955 through 1957.
In this capacity he was intimately involved in the research efforts
described in this report and the development of concepts which led to
the construct.on of Camp Century. Since his retirement in 1958, he
has served (first with the Corps of Engineers, and, since the reorgam-
zation of the Army, with the Army Materiel Command) as staff action
officer for cold regions research and development.
The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable data and con-
sultation provided by Robert W. Waterhouse, Wayne
N,
Tobiasson,
James A. Bender, S. C. Reed, and other members of the U. S.
Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory staff in the
preparation of this report.
The author extends appreciation also to the Chief of Engineers,
the Surgeon General, the Commanding Officer of the U. S. Army
Engineer Research and Dev'elopment Laboratories, and the Command-
ing Officer of the U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory for use of their official records and reports, without
which this report could not have been prepared.
Citation of commercial products is for information only and does not
constitute official endorsement or approval.
USA CRREL is an Army Materiel Command laboratory.
t_________________
_____
_
no
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rii§
CONTENTS
Page
ii
1
1
2
6
25
30
31
33
51
52
53
55
57
59
Preface
-------------------------------------------------
Summary
------------------------------------------------
Introduction
---------------------------------------------
Inception of the Greenland research and development
program
--------------------------------------------
Evolution of the subsurface concept
------------------------
Development of method, techniques, and design criteria
-----
Developm-nt of the Camp Century design
--------------------
Camp Century cost estimate
------------------------------
Construction of Camp Century
-----------------------------
Performance of the camp
----------------------------------
Summary of results
---------------------------------------
Conclusions
----------------------------------------------
Recommendations
----------------------------------------
Literature cited
-----------------------------------------
Appendix
A-,,
Chronological summary
-----------------------
Appendix B. Covered access to cut-and-cover trenches
------
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
I
1.
Map of north polar regions
-------------------------
3
2.
Snow tunnel (cut-and-cover type)
--------------------
3,
Mean density of unprocessed Greenland snow as a
3
function of depth
------------------------------
in ice cap at
4. Temperatures as a function of depth
Camp Century
---------------------------.-----
4
5. Texas Tower concept used in Greenland Ice Cap
5
DEWline Sites
--------------------------------
7
6. Northern Greenland daylight-darkness chart
----------
8
7. Peter snow miller
--------------------------------
10
8. Layout plan for Camp Fistclench
---------------------
9. Peter miller cutting a straight-wall
trench----------- -11
11
10. Open trench covered with timber trusses
-------------
12
11.
Undercut trench
-----------------------------------
13
12.
Undercutting
techniques--------- ------------------
14
13. View of undercut trench
---------------------------
14. Metal arch forms being emplaced over undercut
15
trench
----------------------------------------
16
15. Unsupported snow arch after removal of forms
--------
16. Piles spaced symmetrically with respect to floor
19
-
centerline
------------------------------------
17.,
View of portal to Camp Century showing dozer clear-
ing snowdrifts after a storm
---------------------
21
l21
18. Wind tunnel test of a model building
-----------------
19. Contoars of drift accumulation around composite
20.
21.
22.
23.,
building
---------------------------------------
Schematic sketch of water well
----------------------
Location map
--------------------------------------
Schematic layout of Camp Century
-------------------
Schematic cross section of trench and T-5 building ---
22
24
26
28
29
-RO
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iv
CONTEN PS (Cont'd)
Figure
24.
25.,
26,
27.
28,
29.
30.
31.,
32.
-3.3
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.,
Wonder Arches being installed
----------------------
Trench deformnation
-------------------------------
Detailed layout of Camp Century as constructed
------
Monthly mean tenmperatures
------------------------
Deformation in Main Trench
----------------------
Deformation in french 20
-----------------------------
Severe distress in Wonder Arch
---------------------
Deformation of Wonder Arch
-----------------------
Schematic sketch
of
air well
-----------------------
Snow trinmming over
F-5
building
-------------------
Limit oi contaninatiuon at sewage sump
--------------
View of water well
--------------------------------
Overhead utility lines
-------------------------------
Cutaway vie\v of PM-2A
---------------------------
Glycol well catv
i-----------------------------------
Schernatic sketch of conduit in trench floor
-----------
TABLES
Table
I.
Site II drill hole measurements, 25 June 0958
----------
II. Deformation data - Camp Century
-------------------
III, Well water analysis performed at Fort Belvoir,
Virginia, 1960
---------------------------------
Page
30
33
34
35
39
39
40
41
42
43
43
45
46
48
52
54
5
37
45
*I
I
*i
I
I
I•<
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R•
SUMMAR
Y
This repo't tells the story of Camp Century, an effort to learn
h w to conrtruct military facilities on the Greenland Ice Cap. It des-
cribes orieily the research done by a number of laboratories,, scien-
tists, and engineers in achieving this objective. It discusses the
development of concepts, methods, and engineering techniqucs which
made the construction of Camp Century possible. Engineering per-
formance of the camp and its facilities is summarized, and some of
the more important reports resulting from the effort are referenced
It is concluded in the report that subsurface ice-cap camps are
Loasible and practicable, that nuclear power offers significant ad-
itages in reducing the logistical burden of supporting isolated, re-
r~ote military facilities, and that the wealth of data and experience
S•.)t,_•-A from the Camp Century project will be of
inestimable
value
:
ii•
the ;-Nvelopment of designs for future ice-cap camps.
4
---
I
-_-_---
-
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CAMP CENTURY--EVOLUTION OF CONCEPT AND HISTORY OF
DESIGN,. CONSTRUCTION,
by
Lt. Col, Eir(r
A
INTRODUCTION
With the advent of such weapons as
the atomic bomb, the supersonic long-
2
range bomber, and the intercontinental
ballistic missile, it was inevitable that
military attention should be dreawn to
the remote arctic regions which lie
athwart the shortest air routes between
the major land masses of the- Northern
F..
Clark (Ret)
AND PLRFO!<CX0.
NCE
1
Hemisphere (Figa,
11,
Thus Greenland,
1Northern Canada, and Alaska became
important in strategic' considerations,
and led to the construction of such
iacilities as Ladd Ai, Force Base,
I
Alaska, Goose Air Farce Base,
Labrador, and Thole Air Base,, Green-
land, as well as the extension of the
ring of early warning radar st-itions
along the Arctic Circle. At the same
tirnv�½
it
'�½.ecarne apparent that there
was an urgent militar7 requirement to
initiate a reseirch and development
program which would lead to substantial
enhancement of capabilities to conduct
sustained military operations in north
polar, arctic, and subarctic regions.
\
X,
Figure,
1,
Map of north polar regions.
INCEPTION OF THE GREENLAND RESEIARCH AND DEVELOPMLENF PROGRAM
For the purpose of ident'fying problem areas and obtaining information upon
to base an integrated and meaningful Greienland research and development
program,, Mr. Robert R, Philippe, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Dr, Paul
A,
Siple, Department of the Army, Mr. Roger Pryor, Department of Defense and Mr. James
E. Gillis, U,
S,
Army Corps of Engineers Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research
Establishment, visited Greenland during the summer of 1953,
They considered the
engineering and associated problems which would have to be solved in order to make
possible the military exploit;,t:on of Greenland's strategic location. Among other
research objectives which resulted from this visit was that uf developing concepts,
methods, techniques, and equipment required for the construction of camps on the
ice cap. Problem areas which were considered to have a direct bearing on camp
construction were:
Swhich
1..
2,
3
4.
5,
6,
7.
Use of snow ?s a construction material,
Foundations in snow.
Arctic housing,
Control of drifting snow,
S urces ot power.
Water supply.
Waste dlsposal.
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2
A7,AMP
CFNTTTR
VY-CC.0%TTPT
ANT) T-T"••
V
As a result of this visit, dcuring the summer of 1954 a modest Corps of Engineers
Greenland research and development program was initiated and addressed to these and
other problems. In implementing the program, specific research and development
tasks were assigned to the following Corps of Engineers laboratories: U. S. Army
Snow, Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering(USA SIPRE),
(USA
CRREL);,
U. S.
U. S.,
Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment
Laboratory now redesignated
Army Engineer Research and Developmnent Laboratories (USAERDL); U. S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (USAEWES), and U. S. Army Engineer
Arctic Construction and Frost Effects Laboratory (USA ACFEL), since combined
CRREL,
with
USA
�½n 1954, ovide logistical support for the program, the
Ist
Engineer Arctic
to pi
Task Force (1st EATF) was organized and assigned the Greenland support mission.,
S
This mission included construction and operation of necessary camps anc related
facilitics, and providing transportation. personnel, and equipment required by the
laboratories to conduct the assigned iesearch (the 1st Engineer Arctic Task Force
was redesignated the U.
S.,
Army Engineer Arctic Task Force in 1956). In 1958 it
was reorganized as the U. S. Army Polar Research and Development Center
(USAPR&DC), which since has been redesignated the U. S. Army Research Support
Group.
The 1954 effort was devoted mainly to defining further the construction problems
and to the development of promising approaches to the solution of these problems.
During the three years that followed, the program was expanded to include more than
30 specific research and development tasks, most of which were related either directly
or indirectly to ice cap construction.
EVOLUTION OF THE SUBSURFACE CONCEPT
The subsurface camp concept
The question ol whether to construct ice-cap camps beneath or above the surface.
is not an easy one to answer, as either choice has distinct disadvantages of major
proportions. The severe storms, drifting snow, and extremely low temperatures
which prevail on the ice cap are serious disadvantages to above-surface facilities.
Further, above-surface structures soon become subsurface as a result of new accumu-
and the continuous drifting of snow. This is a condition for which they were not
Slation
designed; hence, under the stresses of the ever-increasing overburden, ultimately
they fail. On the other hand, to construct beneath the surface necessitates tunneling
into the snow and erecting buildings and other structures within these tunnels (Fig.,
2). The main disadvantage to this concept is that snow is a visco-elastic material
which deforms in a relatively slow although somewhat predictable manner as functions
of density, temperature, and time under stress*. Hence, in the case of subsurface
construction the designer must consider the maintenance price which must be paid
in terms of a continuing snow-trimming effort in order to maintain the original
geometry and cross section of the snow tunnels. He must consider also the required
design life of the camp, since, at some point in time, it becomes buried to a depth
"where
the deformation rate is so great that the trimming task is unacceptably burden-
some and costly, However, there is what might be called an optimum zone in which
the closure rate is smaller than either nearer the surface or at greater depths.
This zone is below the depth where snow densifies rapidly and above the depth of a
greatly increased overburden. (Figures 3 and 4 show the densities and temperatures
of unprocessed Greenland Ice Cap snow as a function of depth,)t Although, at the
*Deformation is affected by the complex interaction of these several variables; thus,
theoretical calcuiations are limited to providing zeasonable predictions of deforma-
tion rates at given depths.
tData in these figures were abstracted from USA CRREL reports on work accom-
plished at Site II and Camp Century (see Fig. 21 for location),
.
-
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CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
3
-
AS
im
I5
Fiue2
nwtne ctadcvrtp)
20
40
I0
60
i(
iiW
ucio
(Fscec)a
Ino
atStI ofdph
Figure
3.
Seno destyfunnep(uradcoeseGreetype)
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-
__
4
CAAP
(CETTUYV--.TCON
PT
AND HISTOR V
time of this writing, there are not
sufficient available data to establish..
the precise limits of the optimum
zone, it is deduced from measure-
ments and observations of tempera-
tures, densities, and closure rates as
a function of depth at Site II* and
Camp Century that it extends from
approximately 60 to
lZ0
feet below
the surface. Table I shows calculated
hydrostatic pressures in Greenland
snow as a function of depth.
An alternative to subsurface con-
struction, which has been studied and
even put to limited use in construction
of the ice-cap DEWline stations, con-
sists of construction on piling (Texas
Tower) and installation of jacking
systems so that the structures can
be raised periodically to keep them
above the surface of the snow (Fig. 5).
However, the initial cost of this type
of construction is far greater than
that of constructing beneath the surface
and it has the added disadvantage of
being readily visible for miles against
the white and featureless ice-cap
For these reasons,
Sbackground.
S-
except for very special purposes such
as cited above, it is not considered
practicable for military facilities.,F
The major advantages and dis-
advantages of both above-surface and
subsurface construction are considered
to be:'
I.
Above-surface construction
a.
Advantages:'
..
+5
NOW SqRFACE.
1
TOP
OF
CASING
0
0O-
200
0
4
-
9 S
31-
4
7
-.
a
S-00
,
,
-25.0
30
3 0I
I
-24.0
-
11.0
-245
- 2O
I
2
-23.5
-23oC
-
to O0
,
l
-9oF
*
,ii
R
TEMPERATURE
Figure 4. Temperatures as a function
of depth in ice cap at Camp Century.
*
(1)
Maintenance cost is substantially lower.
(Z)
Is more suitable for some types of military facilities (e. g.
radomes, radio antennae, meteorological instruments and instru-
ment towers).
(3)
(4)
Requires less power for lighting.
Offers psychological advantages
(i.
e.,
to living in subsurface camps).-4
many people have an aversion
b.
Disadvantages:
(1)
(2)
Initial construction cost is appreciably higher.,
Is subjected to the severe above-surface environment.
(3)
(4)
(5)
Requires more imported construction materials.
Engenaors a severe snow-drift removal problem (unless elevated
several feet dbove the surface on columns).
Only delays eventual burial; hence, provides no permanent solution.
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Table I.
Depth below
1958
sarface (ft)
.185
235
285
335
38:5
435
535
585
635
Site II drill hole measurements,
Calculated hydrostatic
pressure (kg/cm
2
)
3.58
5.30
6.,70
8.10
9.50
10.90
13 70
15.10
16.50
25 June 1958.
5
Hole
diameter (in.)
5.836
5.824
5.780
5.808
5.776
5.758
5.935
5,518
5.470
5.372
5.,140
5.,000
4.,958
4.410
S685
S785
S831:
9
S935
S735
17.90
19. 31
20, 71
22.1II
885
985
23.,55
24.9Z
4.474
S1010
1035
1085
1135
26.32
27.02
27,72
29. 12
30.53
4.022
3. 786
3.684
3.068
2.704
S
The flow rates are indicated by hole diameters at successively greater depth after a
period of approx 10 months from completion of drilling. Initial diameter of hole was
5. 8375". (Abstracted from Hansen and Landauer, 1958).
I
.9P
Figure 5. Texas Tower concept used in Greenland Ice Cap DEWline sites,
Built-in jacking device permits periodic raising of structure as new snow
accumulates.
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
(6)
(7)
(8)
2.,
Is difficult to camouflage.
Is more vulnerable to enemy attack.
Requirc:s more fuel for heating purposes,
Subsurface construction:
a., Advantages:
(I)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Initial construction cost is lower.
Avoids severe above-surface environment.
Requires less fuel for heating purposes,
Requires less imported construction materials.,
Minimizes the problem of drifting snow.
Is easier to camouflage.
Is less vulnerable to enemy attack.
Maintenance cost is higher.
Requires year-round power for lighting.
Has limited useful life, owing to the fact that it ultimately becomes
buried to a depth where the de ormation rate is greatly accelerated.,
Is psychologically undesirable
Disadvantages:'
After careful consideration of the foregoing, it was decided to address all efforts
to the development of techniques, methods, equipment, and design criteria for
subsurface camp construction.
The subsurface road concept
Full exploitaticn of the military potential of the Greenland Ice Cap required
reliable year-round access to camps and other facilities located within its boundaries.
Summertime access on a fairly reliable basis, by both air and surface means, had
been made possible through development by the U. S. Air Force of satisfactory skis
for large cargo planes and the development of greatly improved oversnow transport
equipment by the U. S. Army Transportation Corps. However, the daily 24-hour
darkness (Fig. 6), extremely low temperatures, and violent storms made wintertime
transport by either means hazardous and exceedingly unreliable. During three years
of operation of the ice cap AC&W stations, Sites I and
II*,
Thule Air Base was unable
for weeks at a time to transport mail, passengers, and needed supplies to these sites
by air. The history of wintertime air rescue operations in Greenland is filled with
accounts of aircraft crashes and harrowing experiences of near disaster. Winter-
time surface transportation, although somewhat less hazardous, is time-consuming
and not much more reliable than air transportation.
In view of these limitations of both surface and air transportation, the concept
of subsurface roadways was given serious consideration. Such roadways would be
independent of weather, would eliminate navigation problems, and would provide
reliable year-round access to camps located anywhere on the ice cap. However, it
was realized that a system of subsurface roadways would be economically feasible
only if major installations were envisioned.
DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS, TECHNIQUES, AND DESIGN CRITERLA
Use of snow as a construction material
The knowledge that snow has excellent insulating properties and can be used for
construction purposes is not new. In fact, the Eskimos have used it for centuries to
construct igloos and other types of survival shelter. When the requirement for ice-
cap camps was established, the possible use of snow as a construction material
*Respectively 96 miles NNW and 220 miles ENE of Thule.
_
I
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ICM
;;;
ET
CETUY-ONEP
7
~T
A
ND
HISTORY
7
ID
It
1
tE
0
r
r.
0,
o
'0
0..
'00
~z
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8
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
became an exceedingly attractive consideration from the point of view of monetary
a,,, well as logistical economy. However, to use snow on a massive scale in this
type of construction required not only a thorough knowledge of its physical properties,
but also development of new techniques and equipment designed to handle it rapidly
and in large volumes. Further, as snow has low density and strength in its undis-
turbed state, it was necessary to deveiop a means for increasing these property
values by some processing technique before its use in construction could be con-
sidered seriously.
It had been noted that snow cleared from roads by rotary plows gained signifi-
cantly in density, hardness, and bearing strength as a result of having been handled
by these plows. Hence, it was evident that some type of large rotary plow might
provide a solution to the processing problem. Such a plow, the Peter snow miller'.'
(Fig. 7), used by the Swiss to clear roads of avalanche snow in the Alps, seemed to
offer promise for this application. It not only possessed a capacity to handle large
3
3
volumes of snov (approximately 780 yd /hr in
0.
4 g/cm snow), but was also capable
5
of cutting through dense snow containing deposits of ice. Moreover, its milling
3
action produced a high density (0,55 g/cm ) granular material with a broad range of
This snow, called Peter snow, hardens with time into a material of
grain sizes.
significant mechanical strength.
Figure 7.
Peter snow miller in operation cutting a trench,
""-The
introduction of the Peter miller for this application in Greenland and the vn-
couraging subsequent developments resulting from its use can be credited to Dr.
Henri Bader, who was then Chief Scientist of USA SIPRE.
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CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
9
The trenching capability of the Peter miller was first investigated in 1955 at
Site II (Fistclench), a location on the ice cap 220 miles east of Thule at an elevation
of 6800 feet. In 1956, under the direction of R. Waterhouse, USA SIPRE, project
"Snow Structures" was initiated and the study of snow as a material of construction
was incorporated into the program of investigations.
The first 500 feet of trench was produced and covered with an arched snow roof
composed of Peter snow, which was deposited by the Peter miller on a specially
designed removable metal form. The engineering propertieb of density, grain size
distribution, unconfined compressive strength, and hardness were determined and
related to the operating characteristics of the machine, including operation at various
speeds and casting over a range of distances. The obvious objective was the pro-
duction of a material which possessed the highest strength at the earliest possible
time after deposition. To this end the investigations continued.
During these early investigations, it was !earned that the best material for
unsupported snow arches contained a broad grain size distribution (0. 1 to 2. 0 mm)
and that the snow gained strength most rapidly if deposited in layers in which large
temperature differences prevailed. It was observed also that this gain in strength,
or age-hardening process, was slow when the snow and ambient air temperatures
were nearly the same and that the faster rates occurred only when the snow was
colder than the air. Butkovich (1962), in his study of the age hardening of processed
snow, described the phenomenon as the formation of new bonds between the grains,
by both a sublimation and a surface migration process, whereby the material from
the grains forms the bonds, and the number of grains in a given cross section de-
creases with time. He observed that some of the factors which influence the process
are heterogeneity of grain size; temperature;, temperature gradients between grains;
and space between grains, or porosity. He reported also that, when a comparison
was possible, the mechanical property of processed snow with time always approached
the value for naturally compacted snow of like density but never exceeded it to any
great degree. The benefit derived from milling the snow was the faster achievement
of high density wi.h rapid age hardening.
Concurrent with these field trials and investigations, physical scientists, work-
ing in Greenland and at the USA SIPRE Laboratory in Wilmette, Illinois, were
rigorously seeking a better understanding of the properties of the natural snow pack
as well as of the processed snow.*
Prior to 1957 all ice-cap installations, including the Air Force AC&W stations
(Sites I and II), had been constructed above the surface, and later became subsurface
as a result of accumulating snow. In 1957 the first known deliberately designed
subsurface camp was constructed at Site II by the U. S. Army Engineer Arctic Task
Force (USAEATF), under the supervision of Lt. Col.
E,
F., Clark, who was then in
command of the Army's R&D program in Greenland (Figure 8 shows the layout
scheme for this camp).
This camp (Camp Fistclench) exploited the snow structures studies which had
been conducted by Waterhouse. The Peter miller was used to cut straight-walled
trenches, which were roofed with conventional structures of wood and metal in all
cases where the spans were greater than 8 feet (Fig. 9, 10). Systems of measure-
ment were initiated to study the movement of the viscoelastic snow, which continues
to densify with time under load. It soon became apparent that, in the design of
undersnow facilities
-,f
any size and life span, the gradual closure of trenches had
to be considered and that some system of trenching was required which would reduce
the roof material requirements for trenches 18 to 24 feet wide at the floor.
*Since 1956, a number of studies of the fundamental properties of snow have been
made. For example, Nakaya (1959) measured Young's modulus and viscosity as a
function of time; Fuchs (1960) studied the structure of age-hardened disaggregated
Peter snow.
Z
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10
CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
QTRS-
\
POL
REC. HALL-
FIRE WALL
OTRS,
ESCAPE
-
0
(I)
r.
wj
Fo
n
HATCH-
SHOP
VAN
z
4
-
C.P.r
C
zz
SUPPLY
C0
0
GENERATORS�½
MESS
HALL-
0
r
43
t
FOOD4
SUPPLY
SUMP
i
0
LATRINE
j
J
SUPPLY-
SNOW
WATER
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Iii
Iz
N
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
11
BE
SFigure
9.
Peter miller cutting a straight-wall trench,
IR
7j.
W
-
-,~
---
',-
Figure
10.
One of the open trenches covered with timber trussgs.
Photo taken before prefabricated buildings were installed.
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12
(CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
S
Figure 11.
Undercut trench.
To solve this problem, Dr. Bader suggested the undercut trench concept, and
the snow structures team built the first undercut trench at Site II in 1958 (Fig. 11).
The trench had a width of 8 feet at the top and 18 feet at the floor (Fig.
12,
13). A
depth of iO feet p;:ovided sufficient overhead clearance to assure at least a 5-year
life before settlement of the roof would begin to crush the enclosed framed structures.
The trench was covered with an unsupported snow arch roof. This was accomplished
by placing metal forms over the open trench, backfilling over the forms with Peter
snow, and then removing the forms as soon as the snow had age hardened sufficiently
to be self-supporting (Fig. 14,
15)
(Waterhouse, 1960). Data obtained during this
construction effort, augmented by studies of the effects of temperature on the strength
properties of both unprocessed and Peter snow, and the experience gained from
occupation of Fistclench, provided information adequate for the design of subsurface
camps with some predictable performance characteristics.
IO_
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CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
13
I4!
44
&IU
ail0
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Ii
14
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CAMP CENTTT1Y-CCNCF.PT
ANTh WTTCV
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CAMP
Z;ENTUR
Y-
CONCEPT
AND HISTORY
15
41
04
'43
.44
0�½
bO
15I�½
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[16
CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
04
04
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CAMP CENTIJRY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
17
9k
The most important lessons learned at Fistclench were that flat structural roofs
over snow trenches were incompatible with the ever-increasing snow load for which
they
I id
to be designed, that waste could be disposed of satisfacturily in shafts pro-
duced in the snow mass by discharge of station effluent, and that structural supports
for buildings must be spaced symmetrically with respect to the trench centerline in
order to accommodate an arching of the snow floor as the trench deforms.
Foundations in snow
Another problem of major concern was that of developing design criteria ,or
foundations in snow. Foundations for ice-cap structures, such as the
U.,
S. Air
Force AC&W stations (Sites I and II).,
had
been over-desiczned because of the lack of
reliable data on the bearing strength of snow. To obtain dar- upon which to base
future foundation design, a series of tests, under the supervision of N.. Costes,
USA SIPRE, were initiated in 1957 at Site II. The program included tests of model
and full-scale piles as well as spread footings.. Various sizes, spacings, and. con-
figurations of piles were incorporated in the plan of test, rates of ].oading were varied;
vertical movemFnts were measured as functioi
5
oi time and stress. Skin friction
and point-bearing values were determined indpendently.
Several different methods of installing the test piles were employed. These in-
cluded driving piles'into place; augering holes, inserting the piles, and backfilling
with snow slush, and a combination of these methods, which consisted of driving the
piles several feet after they had been placed in augered holes,.
These early tests were not conclusive, although they did provide considerable
data on the bearing capacity of piles and spre~ad footings. Costes, after 2 years of
pile testing at Site IL, concluded that 50 psi (point bearing), with a safety factor of
2, would be a conservative design value for piles, providcd they were spaced at least
three pile diameters apart, and driven or emplaced to a depth of 30 feet beneath the
trench floors. At that time, Costes apparently was convinced that skin friction added
little to the bearing capacity of a pile in snow and should therefore be disregardedt
However, additional data obtained ac Camp Century in a recent series of tests indicate
that skin friction may be the more important factor in pile bearing capacity (A.
Kovacs).,o,
In construction of the Air Force AC&W stat-ons, Camp Fistclench and the ice-
cap DEWline stations, spread fooaings were use I exclusively. Thi- decision resulted
from the fact that insufficient data were availabie at that time to provide an adequate
basis for reliable pile foundation design. However, since these facilities were con-
structed, a continuing program of observing 'he performance of spread footings at
these locations has been maintained. Also, several sc'ries of tests on the bearing
capacity of spread footings have been conducted at other locations in Greenland
since 1955. As a result of these tests and measurements, S. Reed, USA CRREL,
observed that the settlement of spread footings on snow is strongly dependent on
temperature and initial snow density and that an exponential relationship between
temperature and the rate of settlement is indicated. He further observed that the
relationship between footing settlement and load is linear up to a load intensity of
2000 psf, but that beyond this value the* settlement rate increases more rapidly.
h
S
9
a
9
*Trench floor arching is discussed under "Foundations in ;now"
tCostes expressed this conclusion in 1958 during a conference on design criteria
for Camp Century. Since 1958, as a result of having evaluated additional data
which have been obtained, Costes apparently has changed his opinion concerning the
value of skin friction and now agrees essentially with the observations of Kovacs.
*•Kovacs, who was in charge of the USA CRREL pile testing program at Camp
Century in 1964, expressed this viewv while the author was visiting Camp Century
during the summer of 1964.
I'
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18
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Dr. A. Assur (USA CRREL) has suggested the following expression for the re-
lationship between settlement and footing size:'
S,=
where:;
S? IS,
*b,
2
b
Sb0
n
in
+ bl/b'201
=
ratio of settlement of two footings
=
width of two footings
= a factor defining the additional width over which the footing load is
assumed to be distributed; i. e. , instead of the contact area, width
b, the load is effectively distributed over the greater width b+b
0
exponent dependent upon characteristics of snow under stress.
Reed observed that the adoption of n=Z and b
0
=1
(in feet) in the above relationship
leads to a very close approximation of observed settlements.
The advantages of piles versus spread footings are debatable and depend largely
upon the nature of the structures they are to support. The advantages and disadvantages
of each from the point of view of ease of construction, intended use, and logistical
economy are considered to be as follows:'
1.
Piles
a,
Advantages:
(1)
(2)
Can extend sufficiently deep beneath the snow surface (trench floor
if in trenches) to avoid the adverse effects of heated structures or of
solar radiation on the strength of the supporting snow.
Are more suitable than spread footings for above-surface construc-
tion, where the surface snow has relatively low density and strength,
or whc re structures should be elevated several feet above the sur-
face to minimize the snow drifting problem.
Require more effort and equipment to install than spread footings.
Are of debatable advantage in cut-and-cover trenches or tunnels,
except where heated structures will affect adversely the bearing
capacity of the upper layers of the supporting snow.
b.
Disadvantages:'
(1)
(2)
2.
Spread footings
a.
Advantages:.
(1)
Require less effort and equipment to install than piles.
(Z) Are more suitable than piles for installation in trenches or tunnels
where working space is confined.
(3) Require less logistical effort in terms of transportation.
b.
Disadvantages:
Are subject to the adverse effects of heated structures or solar
radiation on the strength of the supporting snow.
(2)
Are less suitable than piles for above-surface construction in Low-
density snow or for structures which should be elevated several
feet above the surface to minimize the snow-drifting problem.
(1)
'
*Pile foundations can be designed to extend from the surface into deeper and denser
snow layers, which possess correspondingly greater strength. Hence, in the utiliza-
tion of a given area, piles would carry a greater load with less settlement than
footings placed on the surface, even if a monolithic plate covering the entire area
were to be used. If a structure is elevated on piles several feet above the surface,
wind action tends to prevent the formation of snow drifts under or around the structure.
i
_
_
_
_
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L
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
The snow floors in trenches
tend to become arched within a few
months after construction has been
completed. This effect is generally
believed to result from the stress
distribution which concentrates most
19
•symmetrically
=
of the overburden load on the snow
directly under the trench walls, thus
causing the snow at these points to
consolidate at a more rapid rate than
elsewhere in the floor. In any event,
to compensate for this differential
vertical movement, it is considered
necessary to space piles or footings
with respect to the
floor centerline (Fig. 16).
Tests and observations of both
piles and spread footings "-n snow
which were conducted prior to 1959
did not provide all of the desired
solutions to problems of designing
ice cap foundai
)ns.
However, they
did indicate thac both types were
and provided sufficient data
to design foundations in snow with
reasonably predictable performance
c
Scharacteristics.
Ss.w
0
IGINAL
SNW
FOOR
�½,
FLOOR
SNOW FLOOR
AFTERARCING
a
-feasible
1"
i"
OR
Figure 16. Piles spaced symmetrically
with respect to floor centerline.
L
Arctic housing
With the development of a satisfactory cut-and-cover method of constructing
trenches, the requirement for development of lightweight and inexpensive buildings
for use in the trenches became important. The then existing family of arctic build-
ings and shelters were designed for the surface environment, where wind and snow
loadings as well as insulation are important - sign considerations. However, in
the trenches there are no wind or snow loads and temperatures remain more nearly
constant than on the surface. Consequently, structural members can be made lighter
and requirements for insulation can be greatly reduced. The optimum building for
use in the trenches would have the following characteristics:' very light weight;
inexpensive; sufficient structural strength to support only the design floor loads, the
necessary insulation, and such appurtenant hardware as might be installed; fireproof;
easy to transport and erect or fabricate on-site; and easy to disassemble and remove.
New developments in materials, particularly in organic polymers, appeared to
offer promise in the development of such a building. Honeycomb paper, foamed
concrete, geodesic domes, inflatable shelters, and many other new developments in
both materials and design seemed to merit careful evaluation.
To explore these possibilities, the U. S. Army Engineer Research and Develop-
ment Laboratories (USAERDL) was assigned the task of studying and evaluating
various new materials and design concepts and of designing a prototype building
which would satisfy the subsurface construction requirement. In conducting the
studies, USAERDL considered a number of new materials, commercially available
prefabricated buildings, and fabrication techniques. None fully satisfied all of the
above-stated requirements.
Standard off-the-shelf commercial buildings, although generally suited in most
respects for semi-permanent surface camps in the arctic, were over-designed for
use in the cut-and-cover trenches. Further, without major modification, most
were too large for installation in trenches, where width was limited by the construc-
tion techniques that had been developed.
It
-j
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"^
~CAMP
CENTURY--CONCEPT
AND
HISTORY
Of the materials considered for this application, polyurethane foam ippeared most
nearly to satisfy all of the stated requirements. Its chief disadvantage was that it
could be foamed only in a controlled environment (i. e., 40* to 650F). Nonetheless,
its light weight (2 t6 4 lb/cu it), excellent insulating properties (thermal conductivity,
0
or K factor, of 0. 15 Btu/sq ft/hr!/ F/in), and a high fire-retardant potential (can be
made to be self-extinguishing when specially compounded) more than compensated for
this disadvantage. Also, it offered a logistical advantage in that it could be shipped
to the construction site as drummed chemicals, which would result in a substantial
transportation economy, if on-site fabrication techniques could be developed.
Concurrently with other research on problems relative to ice-cap camp con-
struction, effttrts to develop buildings suitable for installation in trenches continued.
Control of drifting snow
Of prime importance in ice-cap construction is.the development of methods and
techniques for preventing drifting snow from closing the entrances to subsurface
camps and rapidly burying above-surface structures (Fig. 17). To solve this problem
a number of methods were considered, including the use of portable snow fences,
layout configurations, and building geometries which would minimize the problem;
inflatable air locks at trench or tunnel entrances; and air curtains in the form of
clusters of high-velocity air jets at ramps and portals to prevent the formation of
snowdrifts.
Considerable effort was directed to the testing of various snow fence types and
fence layout arrangements, but results were generally far from satisfactory. The
almost unimaginable mass of snow that is repeatedly shuffled by wind action made the
use of portable snow fences ineffective and at best only a temporary expedient.
Further, digging them out and reinstalling them frequently, as they become buried
in the snow, is a time-consuming task. Another disadvantage of fences is the fact
that their continued use around ramps and portals aggravates the problem by the
creation of large mounds of snow, which in turn interfere with wind action and thus
accelerate the formation of new drifts.
The use of inflatable air locks or air curtains to protect portals and ramps was
considered, but was never actually tested in the field. However, it may be that
either of these devices would be more effective than snow fences as a solution to the
problem of controlling drifting snow. Appendix B describes a method of p-rotecting
portals that was tested by USA CRREL at Camp Century in 1964.
The closure of portals is only one of a number of problems involving control of
drifting snow which were studied by USA SIPRE during the period 1954-1964.
These efforts were devoted to a broad spectrum of snow-drift problems, including
the influences of layout configurations, building geometries, and orientation with "
respect to prevailing wind directions on control of drifting snow. The investigations
and tests which were conducted ranged from theoretical studies on.fluid dynamics to
actual field tests with full-scale structures as well as scale-model simulation of a
blowing snow condition in wind tunnels (Gerdel, 1961). Figures 18 and 19 show an
example of the wind tunnel tests.
The most important findings relative to control of drifting snow were: that any
object, obstruction, or depression on the surface results in the formation of snow-
drifts at a steadily increasing rate; that surface structures must be elevated
10
to
20 feet above the surface on piles, if rapid burial is to be avoided; that snow fences,
although useful for some purposes, can be considered only a temporary expedient;
and that surface structures should be laid out, oriented, and spaced with respect to
prevailing wind directions so that no structure is located in the area of the snow-
drift pattern caused by another structure.
*USA C.RREL since 1961.
!___
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I
SCAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT
AND HISTORY
21
£ANN
17. View of portal to Camp Century showing dozer
SFigure
clearing snowdrifts after a storm.
f
B?.
Figure
18.
Wind tunnel test of a model of a coi-nposite Dye
Site building during stages of construction (Gerdel,
1961).
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2Z
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
2•
!6
344
025
200
24
comositeFlow
0
25
25
Figure 19. Contours of drift accumulation around the composite Dye Site
H
building on =he ice cap during a 10-month period (upper drawing) and contour,
showing the accunulztion pattern developed in the tunnel on a scale model of
the composite Dye Site building (lower drawing). Elevations shown are in
feet above the natural surface. (Gerdel, 1961)
2-
S'I
__
__
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Water supply
23
Sshaft
Dr. Bader in 1955 advocated producing water for ice-cap camps by melting a
into the ice to a depth of approximately 100 feet, where the snow has a density
of about
0.
70 g/cm
3
and is impermeable to water. Then, with the use of steam jets,
a pool of water sufficiently large to satisfy camp requirements could be melted and
maintained. The water could be pumped into storage tanks by means of a deep well
pump (Fig. 20). Bader's concept was based upon his observations of the sewage
disposal system at Site II, where water-borne sewage which was dumped into a pit
rapidly melted its way down to a depth of about 100 feet. It then ponded and created
a pool of ever increasing size which remained in the liquid state as long as the heat
input was continued (Bader and Small, 1955).
The advantages of this concept over the conventional snow melter were obvious.
Not only would less manpower be required in the production of water but also an
abundance of water could be produced at less cost per gallon.
In 1958 a task was assigned to USAERDL to test the ice-cap well concept. In
1959, Mr. R, lRodriguez, USAERDL employee, assembled the-necessary equipment
(steam generator, flexible steam pipes,- steam nozzles, deep well pumps, storage
tanks, winch, etc,) and conducted a field test on the ice cap. He developed a water
supply system which is now known as the "Rodriguez Well. " The equipment con-
sisted mostly of.modified commercial items. The success of this tus,,t is documented
by USAERDL Technical Report No. 1737.
Sources of power
Providing conventional types of fuel (i.e., diesel oil, gasoline, kerosene, etc.
for heat and electricity becomes a logistically burdensome requirement, not only on
the Greenland Ice Cap, but also in any remote region. Solar furnaces, wind:powered
electric generators, or water turbines may provide partial solutions to this problem,
but each has distinct disadvantages and limitations. In the high polar latitudes, solar
power is not available at all during the polar night, which lasts from early November
to mid-February of each year; wind power is at best sporadic and undependable; and
the water-power potential is limited to the two to three months of summer during
which streams flow. Further, on the Greenland Ice Cap, sources of water for
operation of turbo-electric generators are available only at the very edges, where
temperatures rise above 32
0
F in summer. Hence, nuclear power appeared to be
the only feasible solution.
During the summer of 1955, two Corps of
Engineers
representatives fron. the
Army Nuclear Povwer Program visited Greenland for the purpose of determining the
feasibility of int-alling a modular-type nuclear power plant on the Greenland Ice Cap.
They considered also the advantages, if any, such a plant would offer in comparison
standard diesel -electric plants., After inspecting the Army R&D camps and sites
and discussing power requirements and installation problems with USA SIPRE
engineers and scientists and the CO,
1st
EATF (Lt. Col. E. F. Clark, who was then
in command of the Army R&D program in Greenland), they concluded that the
engineering problems of installing a plant on the ice cap, although difficult, were
not insurmountable and that a tremendous logistical economy in ice cap transporta-
tion would be realized.
*
They recoinmended that such a plant be designed and in-
stalled on the Greenland Ice Cap. The primary reason for selecting the ice cap for
t
j"to
I
•this
test was that if a plant could be installed and operated successfully there,
where engineering problems would be complicated by excessive deformation of the
snow trenches housing it, installation and'operation of such a 'plant in other less
severe environments would be easy by comparison. Experience with the SM-l
Nuclear Power Plant, then under construction at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, would
provide sufficient data upon which to base the design of a small modular-tyfe, skid-
mounted plant. Accordingly, plans were formulated to design a plant and install it
in Greenland during calendar year 1960.
I
I
j
*A
few pounds of enriched U-235 contains as much energy as thousands of drums of
fossil-fuel.
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24
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORI
ICE CAP SURFACE
Cailing
Pump Water Line
TRENCHWATER
Steam Line
Floor..
"A!'"
FRAME ond
WINCH
CABLE
ASSEMBLY
STEAM
GENERATOR
STORAGE
TANK
PUMP
SUSPENSION CABLE
WATER
LEVEL
MELTING-PUMP
BIT ASSEMBLY
Figure 20.
Schematic sketch of water well and equipment.
-i
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7a
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Z5
disposal
S~Waste
A
completely satisfactory method of disposing of water-borne waste on ice caps
was developed
by
the Corps of Engineers and incorpc,�½ated in the design of the Green
-
Sland Ice Cap AC&W stations, Sites I and II. This method consisted of dumping the
waste into an unlined snow pit, from which it melted a vertical shaft down into the
snow to an impermeable layer (approximately
100
feet), where it spread laterally and
formed a bell-shaped cavity. The spread of lateral contamination was subsequently
determined
by
coring down through the contaminated zone at consecutively greater
distances from the shaft. This provided a basis for determining minimum safe dis-
tances between ice cap water wells and sewage pits.
Disposal of trash and other non-water-borne waste was provided by burial in
snow trenches in the same manner as in normal sanitary fills in ]and areas.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CAMP CENTURY DESIGN
Decision to construct a new subsurface camp
Early in 1958 plans for a modular-type, semi-portable nuclear reactor power
plant to be installed on the ice cap had been completed, approved, and funds for its
construction had been programmed and promised by the Department of the Army.
However, the site for its installation had not been selected. The austere prototype
undersnow camp at Site II had not been designed to accomodate such a plant. Further-
moze, Site II, located
218
miles from Camp Tuto (Fig. 21), imposed an unnecessary
logistical burden in terms of surface transportation, since all of the research and
development being conducted there could be conducted nearer to the ice cap edge and
much closer to Camp Trto. Also, from the research point of view, construction of
a new camp, which would incorporate all of the methods and techniques that had been
developed during the preceding 4 years, seemed highly desirable. Baser, in these
considerations, a decision was made to construct a new camp which would incorporate
all of the previously developed ice cap construction methods and techniques.
Selection of a location for the new camp
Considerations of prime importance in selecting a site for the new camp were:
1.
A location where the seasonal fluctuations in temperature would not
endanger the snow structures through excessive melting or warming of the snow
mass.
2.
A location free of crevasses.
3. A location which would serve the foreseeable research needs.
4. A location closer to Camp Tuto than Site II.
5. A location that could be served by surface transportation over the
existing trail which had been constructed through the crevasse zone exteiding from
Camp Tuto eastward approximately 60 miles.
With these limitations in mind and with the advice of Dr. Bader, a site 138 miles
east of Camp Tuto, along the Tuto-Site II trail, was tentatively selected. Subsequent
ground reconnaissance verified its suitability., However, with no detailed records
of Greenland Ice Cap weather dating earlier than 1952, this selection was made with
the knowledge that it was a calculated risk and that surface air temperatures might,
on rare occasions, rise above 320F. This would be serious only if continued for
long periods, which was thought to be improbable by Air Force and Army meceorolo-
gists, who w-e most familiar with North Greenland weather.
A name for tl.
new camp
In selecting a name for the new camp, a deliberate attempt was made to avoid
naming it after any person living or dead. Danish representatives at Thule Air Base
had expressed a distinct aversion to maps which read like an obituary column.
Originally, it had been suggested that the new camp be located 100 miles from the
ice cap edge. This being so, R. Philippe had suggested that "Camp Century" would
be an appropriate name for it,
Thro'gh usage in correspondence and conferences,
this name came to be accepted officially.
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iII
_
Z6
CAM,iP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
0
iW
~-
'.
M
-
9
3
Figure 21.
Camp Century location.
Assignment of responsibilities for the construction of Camp Centurv'
After considerable discussion within
OCE
between the various staff elements
which had a direct interest in Camp Century, assignment of responsibilities for its
construction were made as follows:,
Responsibilities
Unit or Agency
Overall construction, except as
otherwise noted
Cbntracting for design and con-
str.:.tion of the nuclear power
plant (PM-ZA), except as other-
wise noted
U. S. Army Polar Research and
Development Centei (USAPR&DC)
U. S. Army Engineer District,
Eastern Ocean (EOD)
I
Design and supervision of con-
struction of buildings and other
structures required for the PM-ZA
Design of the camp, including water,
power, distribution, and waste dis-
posal systems
Consulting services on snow structures
Design of fuel core for the PM-ZA
U. S. Army Engineer District,
Eastern Ocean
U. S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Laboratories
U. S.
Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost
Research Establishment
Army Nuclear Power Program, OCE
Nuclear Power Field Office, OCE
SSupervision
J
-- I
of PM-2A installation
I_____________________
_________
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Design criteria
27
The Chief of Engineers provided the USAPR&DC, USAERDL, USA SIPRE, and
EOD conceptual guidance and general design criteria essentially as follows:
0
1. The facility was to be a subsurface camp (constructed by use of the cut-and-
cover trenching technique), with a capacity to house 100 personnel on a year-round
basis.
Z.
Design uf the camp was to incorporate the following general features:
a. A nuclear power ?lant was to provide electrical power and steam to
operate the water well.
b. Maximum use was to be made of snow as a construction material.
c. The camp was to have a design life of 10 years (with appropriate
maintenance).
3.
Camp facilities were to include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
1.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
Living quarters
Kitchen and mess hall
Latrines and showers
Recreation hall and theater
Libary and hobby shops
Dispensary, emergency operating room, and a 10-bed infirmary
Laundry
Post exchange
Scientific laboratories
Cold storage warehouses
POL storage tanks
Communications center
Equipment and maintenance shops
Supply rooms and storage areas
Nuclear power plant (also a standby diesel-electric power plant)
Administrative buildings for office space
Utility buildings
Chapel
Z
WE
4. Layout of the camp was to consist of a series of parallel main trenches in
which buildings and other structures were to oe housed. A main vehicular access
trench, large enough to accommodate tractor-drawn sled trains, was to extend
through the center of the camp, perpendicular to the main structure trenches, thus
connecting them (Fig. ZZ).
5. Buildings were to be a prefabricated modular-type, and as light in weight as
would be consistent with other requirements.
6. All buildings which were to be heated or contain facilities that would generate
heat were to be supported on timber cribs or piles, with approximately
2
feet of
unobstructed clearance between the snow trench flocr and building floor.
7. Water was to be produced by development of an ice-cap well, located at
least 1000 feet from the liquid waste disposal sump. Steam was to be used to melt a
shaft down to a depth of approximately
100
feet. At this depth a pool of water of the
desired size was to be produced and maintained by use of steam jets. Deep-well
pumps were to be used to transport water from the well pool to storage tanks.
Storage tanks and distribution lines throughout the camp were to be heated and insu-
lated.
8. Camp ventilation was to be provided by two separate systems, i. e., an in-
closed system for ventilation of buildings and a separate system to expel heat and
gases from the trenches.
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28
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
ENTRANCE
�½h1F
20
LII
i
SEWAGE SUMP
A
PUMPING STA. (SEWAGE)
C
D
E
F
LABORATORY
OLD WATER WELL
NEW WATER WELL
REACTOR AREA
ENTPANCE
Figure 22.
Schematic layout of Camp Century, showing location
of sewage sumnp in relation to water well.
9.
Buildings were to be heated electrically.
10. Water-borne waste was to be pumped into well-type sumps, located at
least 1000 feet from the watez supply source and not less than 500 feet from the
nearest building. Solid waste was to be deposited in a separate trench and covered
with anow.
11. Cut-and-cover trenches were to be the undercut type. Unsupported snow
arch roofs were to be used to the maximum practicable extent. Standard trenches,
approximately Z4 feet wide at floor level, were to be used to house buildings and
other structures throughout the camp. Exceptions to use of the standard type trench
were to be limited to maintenance shops.
12.
Fire walls were to be installed between'buildings.
__
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
29
ORIGINAL
W
CEXCAVAT
ARCH FILL (PETER SNOW)
JOOL
ION
ptGAL 18.216
S~T-5
BUILDING
"WALKWAY-
"Figure
Z3.
Design problems
Schematic of modified T-5 building in a standard trench.
Very early in the process of preparing plans and specifications for Camp
Century, it became apparent that a number of undesirable compromises would have
to be made. Specific problem areas and sclutions decided upon were as follows:
1.
Buildings - USAERDL stated that insufficient time was available to design
and test new modular-type buildings such as envisioned, and recommended that the
T-5
arctic building be adapted for use in the standard trenches by reduction of its
width from 20 ft to 16 ft (Fig. 23). This building was expensive and had been designed
to withsta:.- heavy snow and wind loads. Hence, it was grossly over-designed for
use in Camp Century. However, there appeared to be no alternative to its use.
Accordingly, the USAERDL reccwrmendation was approved, with agreement that only
fifty percent of the normal number of lamin;.ted plywood roof trusses would be in
each building.
2.
PM-2A Trenches - ALCO Products had been awarded the contract to construct
the nuclear power plant and had agreed originally to a design which could be ac-
ccmmodated in the standard 24-foot trenches. However, before preliminary designs
had been completed, they requested relief from the 24 ft trench width restriction for
certain portions of the power plant on the basis that the specified configurations and
hardware could not be adapted practically to so little space. The EOD held a con-
ference in New York to chscuss these and other problems. At this confererce R.
Waterhouse, USA SIPRE, recommended a solution to the trench width problem which
would permit construction of straight-wall trenches up to 40 ft
iD
width. His solution
consisted of the use of corrugated metal arches (Wonder Arches) to cover the side
trenches (Fig. Z4). It %'aj his opinion that 16 gage corrugated metal arches would
satisfy the design life requirement, provided the arches acquired a filled soandrel
Si
_ ---
"•
i
-
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30
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Figure 24.
Wonder Arches being installed over 40-foot wide
reactor trench at Camp Century.
load symmetrically, with a limited thickness at the crown, and provided a ventilation
system adequate to prevent excessive warming of the snow over the arches was in-
stalled. A decision was made to accept Mr. Waterhouse's recommendation. It was
realized at the time that this type of construction (i. e., wide, straight-wall trench,
covered with metal arches) had not been tested and might not prove to be a satisfactory
structure. However, at the time there appeared to be no alternative to this solution.
3. Ventilation - The CO, USAPR&DC requested relief from the requirement to
construct convection barriers in the trenches between heat sources (i. e., buildings,
etc.) and the snow arch roofs. At a conference held at USAERDL on design prob-
lems, it was agreed that the barriers could be omitted from the design plans. It was
also agreed at this conft-rence that, instead of an inclosed ventilation system for all
buildings, several methods would be used in various parts of the camp in order to
evaluate a number of possible solutions to the problem.
CAMP CENTURY COST ESTIMATE
"Based
upon preliminary plans and specifications, the cost of Camp Century was
estimated as follows:
Item
Prefabricated buildings
Roofing forms
Electrical heating system
supply system
SWater
Waste disposal system
Ventilation systems
Power distribution system
and ablution set
SShower
Amount
700, 000
150, 000
90,
000
70,
000
50,
000
200,
000
50,
000
100, 000
-
S
if
I..
H
r l
a
i li
l f l
si
; [ _ --
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Alarm systems (,.re & carbon monoxide)
Fire fighting system
Fuel storage tanks
Misc const materials
Design costs
Subtotal
PM-2A
Standby power plant
Total
10,000
50,000
50, 000
200,000
100, 000
1,820,000
5,700,000
400,000
7, 920, 000-'
31
*The actual total cost of Camp Century was held to this figure.
V
K-
Design, plans,
CONSTRUCTION OF CAMP CENTURY
and specifications
Detailed design plans and specifications for Camp Century were accomplished
during the latter part of 1958 and early 1959. USAERDL, with assistance and guidance
from USAPR&DC and USA SIPRE, prepared preliminary design specifications for
the camp. Most of this work was done in-house. However, design specifications and
drawings for the camp's electrical power distribution system were pre-ared by the
U. S. Army Engineer District of Washington. The bulk of this planniug, along with
finalized drawings and bills of material, was completed by December of 1959.
In the meantime, planning for the nuclear power plant had progressed rapidly.
In October 1958, the Chief of Engineers let a design study contract to ALCO Products,
Inzorporated, Schenectady, New York, to investigate the feasibility of constructing a
Sniclear
power plant on a polar ice cap. Based upon the favorable conclusions of this
study, the Chief of Engineers directed EOD to let a contract for design and fabrica-
tion of a plant, the PM-2A, to be installed at Camp Century. In February 1959 ALCO
Products was awarded this contract. An additional contract was awarded by EOD to
Metcalf and Eddy, Boston, Massachusetts, to design support facilities for the PM-ZA,
including foundations, buildings, and other utilities. These and subsidiary contracts
allowed only 18 months for the fabrication, testing, and delivery of the PM-2A Nuclear
Power Plant, together with all materials, buildings, and ancillary equipment neces-
sary for its complete installation.
As previously discussed under design problems, a number of compromises had
to be made in the final design plans for the camp, and particularly in providing the
wide, straight-wall trenches to house portions of the PM-ZA. Hence, the final plans
for Century were a composite of tried and proven methods and techniques, which had
resulted from 4 years of previous R&D efforts, along with untested and unproven
techniques. The plans also incorporated many items of bulky and unnecessarily
heavy hardware, such as spiral steel stairways in the escape hatches, standard T-5
buildings, and conventional plumbing systems, because time did not permit the redesign
of these items.
Construction of the camp
Camp Century was constructed by the U. S. Army Polar Research and Develop-
ment Center (USAPR&DC), under the command of Colonel John H. Kerkering.
Major Thomas C. Evans was the Project Officer for the non-nuclear portions of the
camp, and Major James W. Barnett was Project Officer and Resident Engineer for
fabrication, factory testing, transportation, installation, and acceptance testing of
the PM-2A Nuclear Power Plant (Barnett, 1961).
Actual construction of the camp was started in June of 1959, and completed in
October 1960. Appendix A is a chronological summary of events, abstracted from
TTSAPR&DC report on the construction of Camp Century (Evans, 1961).
Sthe
I
a
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32
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Weather, time available during the two short summer construction seasons, and
a number of other mnor considerations caused innumerable minor deviations from
the originai design plans as approved. Most of these were not serious. However, as
will be shown in the se tion of this report on the performance of the camp, some
were quite serious and ultimately created problems of major proportions.
Major deviations from the approved design plans were as follows:
I. Steel arch formns were left in place in many of the standard trenches,
including the main communications trench which provides vehicular access to the
camp. This change was made by the CO, USAPR&DC based on observations of the
behavior of some of the unsupported snow arches in which the metal arch forms had
been removed before sufficient age hardening had occurred (Fig.
25).,
In these in.
stances, as might have been predicted, the unsupported snow arches deformed
rapidly.
2. The original plans called for the installation of sliding overhead-type
doors. However, the dark winter season came in 1960 before this had been accom-
plhshed, and snowdrift problems encountered during the first winter of occupancy
indicated that the original plans were nQt feasible. Hence, installation of closure
means was deferred until more studies could be undertaken. The problem of portal
closure will be discussed in the performance section of this report.
3. Although not specifically stated in the approved plans, it was agreed that
the waste disposal sump would be at least 1000 feet from the water well and at least
500 feet from the nearest building. As the camp was constructed, the sewage sump
was located only 150 feet from the nearest building. Time again prevented adherence
to the original plans.
4. The ventilation systems called for in the original plans were not-in-
stalled. In the case of ventilation of the interior of buildings and other structures,
this was not serious. Convection and the natural air permeability of snow provided
adequate fresh air in the tunnels to prevent dangerous carbon monoxide levels from
accumulating. The buildings were designed so that fresh air was drawn into living
quarters and other structures by a system of louvers and fans. However, failure to
install a system to expel heat from the trenches became a serious problem, which
will be discussed later in this report.
5. Fire walls between each set of structures were not installed, owing to
shortage of time and funds. It was planned to install these in 1961, but these plans
were later cancelled, as it was considered that the installed sprinkler systems and
other fire fighting equipment were more than adequate to isolate any fire which
might occur.
The construction of Camp Century required an impressive logistical effort in
terms of transportation of heavy cargo by tractor-drawn sled train. Materials
hauled from Camp Tuto to Century, a distance of 138 miles, approximated 1000 short
tons in 1959 and 4600 short tons in l960. Some of the cargo transported consisted
of items too heavy or bulky to be carried on the 20-ton cargo sleds. Accordingly,
special sleds had to be fabricated in Greenland,
Details of the construction of Camp Century are provided in the U. S. Army
Polar Research and Development Center report, dated 31 December 1961, entitled
"The Construction of Camp Century. " This report documents the construction
techniques used, organization and employment of the construction force, the sequence
of construction, pertinent log'stical data, and the major construction problems en-
countered. It does not, however, ir.2:.lude "as built" plans, which are available at the
U. S. Army Engineer Research and tevelopment Laboratories, Fort Belvoir,
Virginia.
*
Figure 26 is a plan view of Camp Century as it was actually constructed.
The sewage sump was located 150 feet from the end building in Trench 19.
*USAERDL was designated the official office of record for all drawings of Camp
Century, except those pertaining to the nuclear power plant and buildings.
-
A
i
*
*
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
33
Figure
25.
Example of a cut-and-cover which deformed rapidly
because the forms were removed too soon.
PERFORMANCE OF THE
CAMP
General
It is apparent, in the light of 4 years of Camp Century performance data, that
in general the subsurface concept is sound. In most cases the engineering design of
foundations, buildings, cut-and-cover trenches, and other structures has satisfied
stated requirements. Data which have been obtained through careful measurements
and observations at Camp Century will be of the utmost significance in improving
and perfecting the engineering design of future undersnow facilities. Both design and
construction deficiencies which have been obseived during the past 4 years are dis-
cussed in subsequent paragraphs. Figure 27 compares monthly mean ambient
temperatures on the surface of the ice cap with those in two unheated trenches at
Camp Century. This comparison provides a basis for judging the value of subsurface
ice cap construction in terms of protection from extreme cold.
Deformation rates
Of the engineering studies which have been made of the performance of Camp
Century, the one that, understandably-, has received the most attention is that of
tunnel (cut-and-cover trench) deformation and the resulting loss of vertical and
horizontal clearance.
There are several possible modes of adverse structural behavior of snow under
load, and there are a number of factors which determine which mode, or modes,
will occur in a specific case. Under rapidly applied loads which grossly exceed the
yield strength of the snow, either complete disaggregation or tensile rupture of the
snow may occur, resulting in collapse of the structure. Under lesser loads, distress
is generally evidenced by viscous flow (plastic deformation). At Camp Century only
the latter has been observed.
I
I
I!
I
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34
CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
Glycol Treneh**
t
Waste
DDisposal
44
Air blast
_CoolersHoI
3Hot
Waste
II
Elieactor
cL5
G
-20-ar
Dim0s
USA
PA
Gp
VC
HO
enerator
&Control
Maintenance
late
Wl
&ter
supply Bldg-
79-
_1-0Tank
sewage
Collection
.4-
Water
well
LQuarters
pl
-lt~~.
Theaer
M
ib~rary\�½qlubI
&Lpot
Znr.-40-
ast Manifold
Ctand-b
Ceatuir]
lnVe
Figur
26Chematicy
laou of CaViCntry
Fiue2.Shmtclaoto apCnuy
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
I
May
Jum
Jul
35
Nov
I
Doc
S'
__
I
25
II
Aug
I
Sep
I
Oct
I
°0
F
20
1.5
10
9/
SU
-5
-10-V
-15
-20
-
5
--
C
-20
--
-
-25
-30
-35
Figure
27.
Monthly mean temperatures (Camp Century
-
1962).
-Monthly
mean air temperatures on the surface at Camp Century.
--- Monthly average mean temperatures in two trenches (13 and 14)
which contain no heated structures. Data was obtained from
USA CRREL records.
S
!
-
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36
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
In most cases the rates of deformation have approximated closely those which
had been predicted. However, flow rates are highly temperature dependent, and
where concentrations of heat have persisted in the camp, the temperature of the
adjacent snow mass has risen several degrees. As a result, the snow has deformed
more rapidly than predicted by several fold.* Although there is considerable varia-
tion, the average approximates 30 inches of gross vertical closure a ye.r.
Table II (abstracted from an unpublished report by W, Toblasson, 1963) provides
examples of deformation data which were collected during 1962 and 1963.t It is of
interest to note that the closure rates have been appreciably lower in the trenches in
which the metal roof forms were left in place. Judging from this fact alone, it
might be deduced that the in-place metal arches were responsible for the lower rates,
and there can be little doubt that they were of some value in this respect. However,
the fact that most of the trenches retaining the in-place metal arches contained no
buildings or other sources of heat is considered a more significant factor in retard-
ing the flow rates. Figures 28 and 29 show deformation in the Main Trench and
Trench 20 during a period of approximately 18 months. The Main Trench contained
no heated structures; Trench 20 housed the camp headquarters buildings and the
gymnasium. In both trenches the metal arches were left in place initially. However,
the arches in Trench 20 were removed in 1963 to permit overhead trimming of the
encroaching snow.
In Trenches 3, 4, and 5 (trenches up to 40 ft in width, which contained the
major PM-2A Nuclear Power Plant modules) Wonder Arches were installed but were
not covered uniformly with Peter snow. In fact, in places they were left partially
uncovered, owing to the haste which had to be exercised in completing construction
of the camp before fall of the long arctic dark season. As a result, the Wonder
Arches acquired non-symmetrical loads and by the end of the first year of occupancy
showed severe distress in a number of places (Fig. 30, 31). It was apparent that
expeditious rehabilitation action had to be taken. Twice during the 3-year life of
the PM-2A at Century, sections of these arches were raised approximately 6 feet to
prevent damage to the inclosed buildings and other structures.
Wide, straight-wall trenches, covered with Wonder Arches or timber trusses,
similar to those used in the undersnow camp at Site II, are considered feasible for
certain purposes. However, if Wonder Arches are to perform satisfactorily they
must be seated on and covered with Peter snow so that they acquire a symmetrical
load.
The chief disadvantage of Wonder Arches, or of leaving sh rt-span metal arches
in place, is the great increase in cost as well as the requirement to import many
additional tons of construction materials. The primary objective of developing the
under-cut tbenching technique was to economize on imported materials by reducing
arch span width so that unsupported snow arches could be used.
Accumulation of heat in the trenches
During early stages of the- research and exploratory development which led to the
design of Camp Century, it was realized that buildings, the PM-2A Nuclear Power
Plant, and other sources of heat including vehicles, electric lights, and even people
would raise air temperatures and present serious problems in regard to heat dis-
sipation. Data on the detrimental effect of heat on the stability of snow structures,
as previously discussed in this report, resulted in the initial design criteria which
specified the use of convection barriers to protect the snow trenches. However, in
the final construction plans, as approved by the Chief of Engineers, convection
barriers were not included. Their removal would have been necessary whenever
*:Ithas been observed that the creep rate is twice as fast at 14'F as at 2°F and one
hundred times as fast at 28°F as at -40*F.
tDetailed and comprehensive data on deformation rates are contained in Waterhouse,
Tobiasson, and Scott (1963).
S.
=1
%
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Table II.
Deformation data-Camp Century; arch movement, 1962-1963.
37
Trench numbering system is shown in Figure
25
Heights measured on centerline of trench from floor to arch apex
Stationing:. Main Trench, 0+00 at north end
Side Trenches, 0+00 on Main Trench centerline
Legend: (M) Metal arch still in place
(S)
Metal arch removed
-
measured to snow
Trench
Station
1962 height
1963 height
Yearly change
Main
0+21
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
0+50
3+50
4+00
0+57
1+50
Z+60
3+65
3+95
0+50
1+50
2+56
3+70
0+50
1+60
1
2+00
2+50
3+00
3+70
3+95
11
0+50
1+50
2+00
2+65
3+30
3+70
3+95
0+50
1+50
5
21
6
20
7
19
9
18
10
11
16
12
15
15.80
ft
14.35
14.85
15.45
15.30
14.85
14.55
14.95
16.90
15.35
15.10
14.90
15.10
16.45
15.7
(S)
15.4(S)
15.7 (M)
17.
1
16.8
16.
6
19.
0
20. 0
19.
z
20. 4
Z0.4
19.7
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
14.70 ft
'2.70
12.80
14.10
13.85
13.65
13.10
13.70
13.65
14.10
13.90
13.70
13.90
14.,50
13.2
(S)
13.5
(S)
14.6 (M)
14.8
12.9
12.9
15.7
17.3
(S)
(S)
(S)
(M)
(M)
1.10
ft
1.65
2.05
1.35
1.45
1.20
1.45
1.25
3.25
1.25
1.20
1.20
1.20
0.95
2.5
1.9
1. 1
2.3
3.9
3.7
3.3
2.7
2.8
3.3
3.3
3.3
2.5
2.1
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.8
2.8
3.1
2.9
3.4
3.0
3.2
�½3.6
Metal arch in place along entire Main Trench
6
7
9
16.4(S)
17.1
(S)
17.1
(S)
16.4 (S)
17.6 (M)
17.9 (M)
17.7 (M)
17.5
16.2
15.3
17.9
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
10
20.
1
(M)
20.0
(M)
20.
3
(M)
20.4
19.4
18.5
20.
7
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
20.
2
(M)
20.4 (M)
20.0 (M)
18.9 (M)
18.7 (M)
18.4 (M)
19.6(M)
21.0
(W)
20.8
(M)
17.8 (M)
17.6 (M)
17.
2
(M)
15.8 (M)
15.8 (M)
15.0 (M)
16.6(M)
17.8 (M)
17.
-
(M)
12
2+00
2+50
26. 8 (M)
25.
8 (M)
23.4 (M)
22.
5 (M)
3.4
3.3
I-
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38
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Table II (Cont'd).,
Trench
15
Deformation data-Camp Centur)y; arch movement, 1962-1963.,
1962 height
19.3
18,3
19,
3
19.3
(S)
(S)
(M)
(M)
1963 height
17.0
14.7
15.9
15.4
(S)
(S)
(M)
(M)
Yearly change
2.3
3.6
3.4
3.9
3.
5
3.,6
3.2
3.4
3.0
3,5
4.1
3.9
4.1
3.0
1.0
0. 3
1,9
2 6
Station
0+50
2+50
2+90
3+65
0+50
1+50
3+75
1+60
2+60
0+50
1+50
2+50
3+60
3+80
0+30
1+50
2+00
2+50
16
18
Trench roof cut during June-July
18.0 (M)
17.3 (M)
20.0 (M)
11.8
(S)
12.6
(S)
18.9
19.4
19.8
19.8
21.0
25.1
21.8
23.8
24.1
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
14.5
(S)
13.7 (S)
16.8 (M)
8.4 (S)
9.6
(S)
15.4
15,3
15.9
15.7
18.0
24.1
21. 5
2z1.9
Zl.
5
(S)
(S)
(5)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
(M)
19
20
21
M~etal arches in Trenches 7, 9, 16, 18 and and
20
removad
during June-July 1963
Summary:
Main Trench.' 16 in. /year (average)
Side Trenches (between station 1+00 and 3+00 where end effects
are not present):` 34 in. /year (average)
Side Trenches (near front and back where endwalls act to
decrease movement):' 34 in. /year (average)
Overall average throughout camp: 29. 66 in. /year.
snow trim-iing of roof arches became ne-esbary, but there can be little doubt that
the use of convection barriers would have retarded the closure rates significantly.
It may be concluded also that the non-uniform rates of closure shown in 'Fable II re-
sulted from accumulations of heat and that any system which would have dissipated
or otherwise expelled the heat from the trenches would have extended their useful life
span, without extensive maintenance.
During 1959-1960 USA SIPRE experimented with a unique method of cooling the
Camp Century trenches (Yen and Bender, 1962). Simple in concept, it consisted of
drilling 14-inch diameter holes (air wells) approximately 40 feet into the snow mass
beneath the trench floors. Air pumped from these holes into the trenches by means of
electrically driven fans was drawn through the colder and permeable underlying snow
mass, and thus cooled several degrees (Fig. 32). Yen and Bender concluded, as a
result of this experiment, that the air wells provided a practical and economical means
of cooling snow trenches, but only if the wells were spaced at least 80 feet apart and
were operated on a year-round basis in order to take maximum advantage of the cold
outside air temperatures in wintertime. They also recommended that all portals and
ventilation shafts leading to the outside be left open during the winter season to facili-
tate the natural r.onvection flow of wintertime cold air through the trenches and thus
reduce the rates of closure.
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09
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u~
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-40)
cli.cr
43-
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0
0.
90
14
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a,
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1392824_0046.png
40
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
bA
--
VA
op.p,
Figure 30.
Severe distreso manifested by Wonder Arch buckling and coming
into .ontact with the roof of one of the PM-Z.A buildings.
I
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CAMP CENTURY--CONCEPT AND HISTORY
41
"Figure
31.
Delvrmation of Wonder Arch over one of the PM-2A buildirgs.
The •now trimming problem
Based on past deforiaation :ates, the amount of snow which has to be trimmed
and removed from Camp Century each year in order to maintain the original cross
section of the trenches is estimated to be on the order of 20, 000 cubic yards. As-
suming a work-year of 240 days of 8 hours each, snow trimming and removal would
have to be at the rate of approximately 0. 173 cu yd/min. Hence, even for a camp
no larger than Century, the snow trimming effort is burdensome, and particularly so
if done with hand tools alone (Fig. 33). Efficient mechanical equipment systems
capable of trimming the trenches and transporting the srlow out of the camp could be
developed. however, the cost would
be high
(estimated
0.
4 million dollars), and
this expensive development effort would not be justified unless a number of sul�½-sur-
tace installations such as Century were planned,
Sewage disposal
J
The liquid disposal system which had been developed by the Corps of Engineers
for use at ice cap AC&W Sites I and
H
was incorporated in the Camp Century design
(i. e,, dumping into a snow pit and letting it melt its way down int the ice cap).
However, experience at the abo-vementioned stations indicated that the sewage sump
be vented and should be located at least 500 feet from the nearest occupied
building to prevent accumulation of odious fumes in living or worlkng areas. As
Century was nearing completion in September of 1960, the approach
of
the winter
dark season and the great amount of work remaining to be done resulted in locating
"-
-
ishould
I
I
I-
_!
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42
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
AIR
1
PAN
CAVING~-
ADAPTOR---.*
U4 IN. GALVANIZED
IRON CASING
TRCH
FLOR
tm
n~vflw///1/r
I
*I
1117177
'
APPROX. 40
FT.
\
LII
\\
L
..
.
'Figure
32.
i
_
_4
Schtmatic sketch of air well.
the sewage sump within 150 feet of the nearest T-5 building which was to berve as
living quarters. The auunp was not vented. As a result, the odor of sewage became
almost un*bearable in the nearest quarters by the following summer and traces of
"sewage
odor were detectable throughout Trenches 18, 19, and 20. Sabsequent vent-
ing of the sump reduced the odor to a more tolerable level but did not complet,.!y
eliminate the condition.
To determine the extent of sewage contamination of snow at Camp Century, a
research project was initiated by .he Surgeon General in 196Z. Some pricr research
on this problem had been conductad in 1960 by Major Thomas Ostrom, MSG, of
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research at the abandoned Site l AC&W Station.
However, the results of the '960 investigation were inconclusive and, furthermore,
the volume of water-borne sewage at Century was much greater than at the Site II
installation, Hence, it was considered necessary to reinvestigate the problem.
A
I
-
J
i1
I
•
I l
I
l
liI~l
l
lll
I
!
1
/
11lll
l
l
Ill
Il
I
!
I
II
I'I
1
I
I
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CAMP
CENTURY--OCET
AND HISTORY
43
C,
N
Figure 33.
View from top of one of the
T-5
buildings in a
standard trench, showing a soldier using an electric chain
saw to trim snow away from the building eave.
The 1962 investigation was ac-
&IA Act
complished under the supervision of
Major Ostrom, Walter Reed Army
Institute of Research and
1st
Lt. John
Wilson, U. S. Army Environmental
Hygiene Agency. Znd Lt. Terry Orr,
DeWitt Army Hospital, was assigned
as Project Engineer.
Holes were drilled in the snow_
..
-
-
-lad
'r OF
CoAfAMo
-4*
-
.
.
.
-......
r
DVuW
mass surrounding the sump. Ice
core samples were
obtained
from the
holes and analyzed. Figure 34 shows
/
O'
r
eotss
sR
rnorv
a
b"
6b"
/�½o'
/66'
Soccurred
the limits of the contaminated snow
w
CC"t-AfV•Wah
SYow
as determined during this investiga-
tion. The farthest lateral penetration
of the liquid waste from the sump was
Figure 34. Limits of contaminated
about 170 feet. However, this had
snow at the sewage sump at Camp
in a period of less than
2
Ce:atury.
years. How far such ;ntamination
will ultimately spreaa with time is a matter of conjecture. Undoubtedly, as additional
heat and liquid are deposited, the lateral penetration will continue until a state of
near equilibrium is reached after many years.
During the first
2
years of operation of
C., _p -
entury it is estimated that 3. Z6 x
The temperature
range of this discharge varied from 60 to 880F. The sewage mass in the sump in
August 1962 had a liquid volume of 1.
3
x
106
gallons with a mean temperature of
106
gallons of liquid waste were pumped into the sewage sump.
-I
330F.
This liquid state had been maintained by the daily addit:on of 4650 gallons of
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44
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
liquid waste with a temperature range of 60 to 88*F, thus adding daily approximately
1. 0
to
2.0
x
106
Bt.
This quantity of heat (365 to 730 x 106 Btu/yr). during the first
two years of operation, warmed the surrounding snow mass several degrees and
greatly accelerated the rate of deformation of the trenches. As a result, the snow
floor in the end of Trench 19 settled about 14,.
feet, necessitating removal of the
two T-5 buildings nearest the sump.
In view of the data obtained at Site II and Camp Century, it appears that locating
the sewage sump 1000 feet from the water well and 500 feet from the nearest building
is sufficient. However, as observed by Ostrom (1962), the shape and volume of the
contaminated area are functions of sewage temperature, frequency of waste dis-
charge, daily volume of discharge, and density of~the n6v6. Hence, accurate records
of the volume, frequency, and temperature of the diocharge into the sump should be,
maintained. This would permit use of the Bader and Small (1955) procedure in esti-
mating the volume and probable lateral spread of the contamination.
The water well
The subsurface water well, which has been discussed previously in this report,
was installed at Camp Century during the summer of 1960. The major items of
equipment for the well consisted of a diesel-fired steam geherator* capable of pro-
ducing 165 psi of saturated steam at 373°F and at a rate of about 800 pounds per hour;
a melting-drill bit assembly for melting a well shaft into the ice; a melting-pump
bit assembly for melting the glacial ice and pumping the melt to the surface; a gaso-
line engine-powered cable winch for raising and lowering the bit assemblies; an A-
frame and two wanigans; a 5000-gallon insulated and heated water storage tank; and
necessary rubber hose to convey the steam from the generator to the bit assemblies,
and to convey the melt from the pool to th6 storage tank (Fig. 35).
This equipment functioned efficiently and easily produced sufficient water to
satisfy all camp requirem-.nts- including those of the PM-2A Nuclear Power Plant.
Owing to the fact that the well had reached a depth of over 500 feet, which was near-
ing tha maximum head for the type of dee well pump in use, the well was relocated
in May 1962 after approximately 3. 5 x 106 gallons of water had been produced. More
than 5 x 106 gallons have been pumped from the new well as of September 1964. The
overall average monthly consumption rat-- has been slightly more than
-307-000
gallons.
The quality of the water obtained from the well was excellent and suitable for
drinking without filtration or chlorination. R. Rodriguez, during his installation
and testing of the well equipment, obtained several water samples which he shipped
to the Sanitary Engineering Branch at USAERDL for analysis. The results of these
analyses indicated that the ice melt was better in quality than water obtained by
triple distillation in glass (Rodriguez, 1963). Table IlI shows the results of the
tests conducted by USAERDL at Fort Belvoir, Virginia.
The 12-foot wall T-5 buildings
During the finalization of building designs for Camp Century a decision was
made to use 12-foot wall T-5 buildings instead of the standard 8-foot wall type for
some of the facilities. As all of the buildings, except in the maintenance and PM-2A
trenches, were to be fitted into standard trenches (approximately 24 it x 24 ft) this
decision resulted in a 4-foot reduc-: n in overhead clearance between the building
roofs and the snow arches above them. The consequence was that trimming of the
snow arches above the 1Z-foot wall buildings had to be commenced even before the
rest of the camp had been completed.
*The diesel-fired steam generator w/as installed as a standby heat source. The
primary source of heat for the water -well at Century was the 106 Btu/hr produced
by the Nuclear Power Plant.
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IgCAMP
CENTURY-CO
CEPT
AND
HISTORY
45
Figure
3.5
View of water well from top looking down.
Table
111.
Well water analysis performed at Fort B3elvoir, Virginia
-
1960.
Temper-
/ature
t£f water
in well
(F)
42
41
35
34
32
46
40
39
34
39
40
39
38
Specific
conductance
at
25*C
(micrornhol
0.17
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.15
0.14
0.13
0. 14
0.14
0.14
0.12
0. lz--
0.14
Date
Saoe taken
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
21lMay
28
May
11
Jun
18 Jun
Z5 Jun
Z
Jul
Depth
of well
(ft-in.)
174-10
176-4
183-0
185-0
185-11
191-6
194-6
1975
199-8
z03-6
207-0
208-8
pH
6.
1
6.
1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.0
5.8
58
5.8
5.8
5.9
6.0
6.0
Resist-
ance
(omCm
600,000
590.000
680.000
7Z0.000
680.000
700.000
750,000
0000
700.000
720,000
850.000
800.000
708.000
a
Concentration
mgi
K
C
CL
0N5
93Jul
8
16
Jul
23
Jul
30OJul
6
Aug
13
Aug
9
10
11
12
iAverage
0.02Z
0.04
0.1-------------0.02
0.02
0. 02
0.1
0.10
--
--
0.01
0.02
0.1
---
0.1
--
0.02
0.02
0.1--------------0
04
0.02
0.04
0.1
0.02
--
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.1
----
0.1
0.02
0.01--------------0.03
---
0.03
0.02-------------0.03
.-
00
0.02--------------0.03
0.1
0.00
0.01-------------------------0.00
0.02-------------0.04
---
0.00
------ ------ -------------
0.1
0.00
0.02
0.03
0.1
0.04
0.1
0
(Abstracted fronx
USAERDL
Technical Report 1737-TR)
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46
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Figure 36. View of main communication trench
showing overhead utility lines.
Overhead utility lines
In the main communications trench utility lines were placed overhead (Fig. 36).
Also, to provide a trench floor which would accommodate tracked vehicles without
serious deterioration, a 3 in. x 12 in. plank wearing surface was installed in this
trench. The result was that, as the trench deformed, snow trimming to maintain
the equired vertical clearance could not be accomplished without removing either
the utility lines or the plank floor. During the summer of 1963 the floor was re-
moved and an additional 4 feet of snow was excavated.
Disaggregation of snow in trench floors
Under vehicular traffic, the
snow
floors in the trenches
soon deteriorated
unless
wood or metal wearing surfaces were installed. This deterioration consisted of
This loost
progressive disaggregation of the snow to depths of 12 or more inches.
and coarse granular snow made walking difficult. Further, oil, grease, and fuel
drippings from vehicles made recompacticn of th
,
disaggregated snow virtually
impossible.
In the construction of Century, this problem had been recognized and a wood
wearing surface (3 in. x 12 in. planks, nailed to 6 in. x 6 in, timber stringers) had
been installed in te main comrmunication trench. However, no such precautions
were taken on the ramp entrances to the camp. As a result these ramps were diffi-
cult to negotiate by men on foot a-d ii, time could have becime virtually impassable
even to tracked vehicles. Maintenance efforts consisted of removing the loose,
granular snow with a bulldozer, but this was only an expedient solution. The new
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ii'
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTOR V
47
surface, under traffic, again rapidly deteriorated. Further, with each removal of
the surface layer of loose snow, the ramp was made deeper and had to be extended in
length in order to maintain a proper slope.
USA CRREL conducted considerable research
"'
this problem (Abele, 1963).
Efforts included processing the snow floors with th Peter miller and mixing several
types of additives, such as wood shavings or sawd%st, with the snow and sprinkling
the mixture with water which froze, forming a binc er. None of the measuz es pro-
vided a satisfactory solution of the problem for traked vehicles. However, .he
Peter snow pavement held up well under wheeled vehicles mounted on smooth (with-
out tread) low pressure tires. Of the problems associated with the construction and
maintenance of Ca-np Century, this one and the control of snow drifting in ramp
entrances are the only two for which reasonably satisfactory solutions have not been
developed, although studies have been made on ramp protection (see App, B).
Snowdrift problems and portal closure
M
The almost continuous drifting of snow created a problem of major proportions
at Century. Portal ramps to the camp filled with drifting snow within a few hours
during frequent storms. Structures which protruded above the surface created
patterns that acc eierated the rate of accumulation. Thus the overburden
was increased proportionately and, in turn, it may be assumed that the deformation
rates of the snow trenches beneath become correspondingly greater.
Various approaches to a solution of this problem were tried without any appreci-
able degree of success., Tests involving the use of snow fences to control drifting
around portals and ramps were conducted during the first 2 years the camp was
occupied. However, the tremendous volume of drifting snow during severe storms
soon covered the fences and thus rendered them ineffective. Further, the fences
created large drifts adjacent to the portals and ramps which tended to aggravate the
problem by trapping even greater volumes of snow.
A system of air locks made of nylon, polyurethane film, or some similar
material which could be installed quickly in the ramps and portals during storms
seems to offer promise, but to date the concept has not been tested.
The PM-2A Nuclear Power Plant
-
The PM-2A Nuclear Power Plant, which was constructed by ALCO Products,
Inc., under OCE contract, was installed at Camp Century during the summer of
1960. The plant achieved initial criticality and became operational on 2 October
1960, and, except for down-time to accomplish-routine maintenance or repairs, it
operated continuously until 9 July 1963 at which time it was closed down pending a
decision to relocate it.
Figure 37 is a cutaway sketch of the PM-2A as it was in-
stalled at Century. Major characteristics of the plant are as follows:.
PM-2A Characteristics
10, 000
Gross thermal power
2,000
Gross electric power
1,560
Net electric power
1,000,000
Process steam
Plant weight
310
27
Number of packages*
17
Core life (at lull power)
size
18
Generator rating
Z, 000
4, 160
Generator voltage
Generator frequency
60
Phases
3
$5. 7
Plant cost (through FY 61)
65
Operator and maintenance cost (0. 8 PF)
Relocation and reinstallation cost (estimated)
$2.
5
*9 ft x 9 ft x 30 ft or less, 30, 000
lb
or less.
kw
kw
kw
Btu/hr
ST
Mo
Men
kw
v
CPS
Million
Mills/k-wh
Million
R
Ssnowdrift
R
SCrew
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48
CAMP
CENTURY-CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
0
14
0-0
_7i
ZA�½j
-CU
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
only serious difficulty experienced during the first year of operation of the
PM-2A was a series of malfunctions of the turbine-geneator. In each case similar
symptoms were manifested, i. e. , excessive noise and vibration in the vicinity of
the reduction gears and turbine oil pump, loss of turbine governor control (frequency
hunting), and deposition of metallic particles in the turbine oil system. During each
such period, maintenance on the turbine-generator unit was performed by the normally
assigned crew, under supervision of one or more of the manufacturer's representa-
tives. As a result of these difficulties the PM-2A produced no electrical output
during the following periods:
26
Apr4l through 14 May 1961,
10
June through 6 July
1961, and 2 August through 31 August 1961,
Indications are that these difficulties resulted fronm a thrust bearing failure
early in November of 1960 which contaminated the entire turbine oil system with
metallic particles. However, the condition was aggravated by a poorly designed
turbine oil filter system, which was ultimately corrected by installation of a centrifuge
type of filter.
The only significant modification of the PM-2A equipment during approximately
33 months of operation was that of providing additional shielding to supplement that
required by the original plant design.
The following summary of PM-2A Power Plant operation is abstracted from
the official records of Corps of Engineers and covers a typical period of
I
year
(1 January- 31 December 1962):
Output data
Gross electrical output
Net electrical output
Steam output
Gore burnup
Time on line
Time off line*
Percent of time on line
Average gross electrical demand while on line
5,388,900
2, 663, 544
2080x10
6
4,
712
6,491
2,269
74. 1
830
kwh
kwh
Btu
MWY
hr
hr
kw
SThe
49
*The greater percentage of the tUme off the line was caused by the necessity to
cease operation of the plant for several weeks while USAPR&DC crews re-
habilitated the metal arch roofs covering the reactor building trench.
Miscellaneous statistics
Average core burnup rate
Average radiation dose per crew
member
No. of personnel overexposures
Primary water before demineralizer:
Normal resistivity
Normal activity
Primary water after demineralizer:.
Normal resistivity
Normal activity
0. 265 MWD/hr (at power)
50 mrem/mo gamma
40 mrem/mo neutron
None
2. Z megohm-cm
5.08x1k-s
mc/cc
2.
4 megohm-cm
I.50x10s
5
mc/cc
I
S
I
_
I
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50
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
Waste disposal*
Date
S(gallons)
of disposal
3 Jan 62
22 Jan
62
9 Feb
62
25
Feb 62
11
Mar
�½Z
Z
Apr
62
26
Apr 62
26
May
62
8 Jun
62
24
28
11
1
28
2
4
Jun
62
Jun 62
Jul 62
Aug 62
Aug
62
Sep 62
Quantity
discharged
2755
2613
3025
2850
1812
2205
2350
3250
Specific
activit
(me/cc)X
7
Activity
discharged
(sc)
1.115
1..1x10
1.790
i.525
Cumulative
(mc
1.115
2.905
4.430
5.670
5,788
6.015
6.282
7.812
9.1I22
9,727
9.941
10.
005
3468
1.81xlu-Y
1.
33xi0-
7
1.
15x10
7
1.
74xi0-
8
2.72x10-
8
3.00xl0L-
8
1,29x10-
8
9.97x10"
1.240
0.118
0.227
0,267
1.530
1.
310
0.605
0.214
0. 064
0.037
0. 330
0.012
0.410
0.016
0.A
I6
0. 105
0. 562
2400
2325
1950
2375
1850
1950
2050
2000
1850
16_5
Z375
6.65xi0-
8
2. 43x10"
8
8. 71x10-
9
4.08xl0"
9
4. 70x10
8
I..57x10"
9
1. 80x10-
8
2.
16x10-
89
I. 80xl0-
1.
70x10-
8
6.25xi0-
8
10.042
10. 372
10.
384
10.524
10.
540
10.,666
10.
771
11.
333
11. 333
10
Oct
62
26
Nov
62
14 Oct
62
4 Dec
62
18 Dec
62
i•,08
Avg.:6• 55x10-8
11. 333
*Radioactive liquid v. •te which was discharged into the
Gi
'enland Ice Cap. Danish-
American agreement permits up to 50 millic.ries per year of radioactive liquid
waste disposal in the ice cap.
In accordance with this agreement all solid waste
must be removed from Greenland and disposed of in accordance with AEC regula-
lations, i.e., placed in concrete casks and dumped into designated locations in the
ocean or buried in one of the designated land area burial grounds in the United States.
An auxiliary power plant, which consisted of three 300-kw diesel powered
generators, was installed at Camp Century in 1960. Its function was that of pro-
riding necessary power when the PM-2A had to be shut down for routine maintenance
or repair. During the period when the PM-2A was undergoing shakedown testing,
the diesel plant provided power for the entire camp for more than fifty percent of
•e time.
Sit
on 2 August I 63, a U.
S,
A-rmy Materiel Command plan to remov2 the PM-ZA
Nuc•ier Power Plant from Camp Century was approved by the Chief of Research and
Develog~nent, Depa-i-trent of the
Army.
This decision stemmed primarily from
plans to discontinue year-round operations at Camp Century in order to reduce
Greenland R&D support costs. The fact that closing down the PM-2A and leaving
unattended during i*rt
of the year posed a number of technical difficulties of
major proportions, plb4 the poor utilization factor resulting from operating
it
part
time, made its removal the only practicable alternative. Further, it was considered
that the
research and de -e1o•.-m•t objectives of installing and operating a modular-
S*
*
type, air-transportable nxvscear power plant on the Greenland Ice Cap had been
achieved. The project had demonstrated conclusively that nuclear power is feasible
at remote militat-y instw:llati<>ns and that these plants can be operated efficiently
with military personriel had been the primary objective in choosing the ice cap for
testing the firat modlar, type plant. It was obvious that if it could be done success-
iully in an ice cap e
ii'conrn~ent,
where foundations of snow, extremely low tempex-a-
*
tures, and the confited space in trenches magnified design, construction, and
operating difficulties, lhe feasibility of employing nuclear power at isolated military
installations would be Astablished.
I
I_-__
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CAMP CENTUR
Y-Cc
-"
CEPT
AND
MOTORY
51
During the summer of 1964, the PM-ZA Nuclear Power Plant was disassembled,
removed from Century, and shipped to the United States.
*
No unforeseen major
difficulties were encountered during this operation. However, residual radiation
levels around the primary unit (i.
e.,
reactor and hot waste tank) were considerably
higher than had been anticipated. Hence, daily permissible exposure of crew mem-
bers disassembling these components was shorter than had been calculated, and, as
a result, more personnel were required to accomplish the task in time to meet
scheduled shipping dates than was planned originally.
The glycol heat sink, after its installation in 1961, worked efficiently.t It is
interesting to note that, during the period of approximately 2 years it was in opera-
tion, a subsurface cavity containing approximately
?0,
000, 000 gallons of water was
produced (Fig. 38). This pool of water was determined to be entirely suitable for
drinking and other camp needs. It contained no radioactive contamination above the
normal ice-cap background level and was as pure chemically as that produced in the
ice-cap water well. Hence, in future designs for ice cap camps which are to be
powered by nuclear plants, the heat sink offers a most economical means of supplying
water and cooling the plant with a single system.
A complete technical analysis of the glycol heat sink is contained in USA CRREL
Research Report 60 (Tien, 1960).
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
Results of the Camp Century project considered to be significant are:
1.
The capability to construct both surface and subsurface military facilities
on ice caps has been demonstrated.
2.
The methods and techniques employed in the construction of Camp
Century have been determined to be feasible and fundamentally sound.
3.
The following distinct advantages of subsurface over above-surface
a.
b.
The initial construction cost is lower.
The severe above-surface environment is avoided.
camps have been demonstrated:
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
4.
Less fuel is required for heating purposes.
Less imported construction materials are required.
The problem created by drifting snow is minimized.
Effective camouflage is made easier.
Vulnerability to enemy attack is ;reatly reduced.
Foundations in snow capable of supporting very heavy and large structures
can be designed with confidence.
5. Substantial economy
-an
be realized by use of lightweight materials in
design of buildings.
6.
The
"Rodriguez
Well" is a very efficient ice-cap water supply
E"
stem.
7. Nuclear power plants offer significant advantages in reducing the
logistical burden of supporting isolated, remote military outposts. T-ney provide a
reliable source of power and are able to respond instantaneously to changing power
*The primary unit was shipped to the AEC for destructive testing (i. e., determining
rates of embrittlement and maximum safe service life of metal components, such
as the pressure vessel, which are subjected to neutron bombaroment).
The secon-
E
9
U
dary unit is stored at a depot in the United States pending determination of a re-
location site.
1A
system for removing waste heat from the reactor system. Water, pumped into
a heat exchanger from a pool within the ice cap,' removes heat from the glycol.
Glycol, in a closed loop, is used as the condensing medium for the turbine exhaust
steam.
*
I÷
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52
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
0ORTH-SOTr
H
f
125' To Well
60
SECTION
(Looking West)
4
20
ICE
6o
400
60
/
//
WATER/
60
80
10
120
|
..
'"I
I
I
ICE
I
I
I
120
100
8o
60
4o
20
0
20
40
6o
8o
100
Figure 38. Glycol well cavity, Camp Century. Measured:
20
June 64.
Depths obtained by direct taping; diameters estimated from sonar data.,
conditions. However, to achieve these advantages, a high initial cost must
be paid,
much higher than for comparable fossil-fueled plants.
8. The sewage disposal system developed for Century is efficient and
economical.
9. Only two serious problems pertaining to operation and maintenance of
subsurface
Ca-a=ps
do not have reasonably acceptable solutions;- namely, stabilization
of snow trench floors for tracked vehicles and prevenuon of drifting snow
from
closing ramp
-trances. However, Appendix B describes a covered entrance con-
cept, devised by USA CRREL in 1964, which appears to offer promise as a
solution
to the problem of drifting snow closing ramp entrances.
CONCLUSIONS
Based upon the fcregoing discussions, it is concluded that-'
1. The main objectives of the Camp Century project were achieved.
2.
Subsurface camps on ice caps are feasible and practicable, but only in
environments as cold or colder than Century.
DISTANCE
Rot
,
(MT)
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CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
53
3. Both undercut trenches, covered with unsupported snow arch roofs, and
straight-wall trenches, covered with metal arches (such as the Wonder Arch) or
timber trusses, are feasible and perform acceptably well, if properly installed.
Each serves a specific purpose.
*
4. The cost of future subsurface ice cap camps, such as Century, can be
reduced appreciably by:
a. Removal, during construction, of all metal arch forms in which the
-span does not exceed
1Z
ft in width.
b. Use of foam plastic or other very light weight materials for all
building s.
c. Simplification of utility systems, i. e., avoidance of overhead
utility lines and unnecessarily sophisticated power distribution systems.
5. Modular-type, semi-portable nuclear power plants are feasible and
practicable for remote military facilities as large or larger than Camp Century.
They can be operated and maintained efficiently by trained soldier crews.
6. Means for a continuous program of trimming the snow trenches should
be provided in initial planning for any undersnow camp.
7. Roughly 10 years is the maximum feasible design life for an undersnow
camp in environments similar to Century.t This presupposes an adequate maintenance
program.
RE COMMENDATiGNS
For the design of undersnow camps, the following specific recommendations are
made:
1. Site should be selected where the annual mean temperature-does not
exceed 25°F for more than a few hours at a time. The selected location should be
free of crevasses.
**
Allowable surface slopes should not exceed two percent, as
greater slopes could be indicative of rapid visco-elastic flow rates.
Z. Metal arch roof forms should be removed from trenches in which the
arch span does not exceed 12 ft in width.
3. In the construction of unsupported snow arch roofs, Peter snow should
be backfilled over the metal forms, in approximately 1-foot lifts, until the arch has
acquired a filled spandrel load symmetrically. Forms should not be removed until
the age-hardening process is well advanced.
tt
*For trenches wider than
24
ft at the floor, straight-wall trenches, covered with
metal arches, are preferable; for trenches up to
24
ft wide at the floor, undercutting
and covering with unsupported (metal forms removed) snow arches is consieered
preferable, since both a dollar and a logistical economy are realized (i.
e., procure-
ment cost and transportation of metal arches to the sit).
S
{average
j
i
tThe average annual accumulation at Century is approximately 4 feet of snow; the
annual mean temperature is around -10*F. In a colder climate, with less
precipitation, a proportionately longer design life may be feasible. For example,
at Byrd Station in Antarctica, a design life of 20 years is not unreasonable, pro-
:vided
adequate maintenance is accomplished.
**It is the consensus of glaciologists that crevasses normally do not occur where ice
cover is at least 1000 feet thick. The presence of crevasses is often indicative of
relatively fast flowing ice.
ttBender (1957) reports
that snow with a ram number
(Rammsonde)
of less than 57
has no compreisive strength. Hence, it is recommended that arch forms be left in
place until a ram hardness number of 100 is reached at a depth of 15 cm below the
surface.
--
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54
CA!MP
CENTURY--CONCEPT AND
HISTORY
Ii
JI
COVER
SHOW
DRAIN
ELEC
*
VCAI~SS*1
Figure 39.
JTILITY CMiDUIT
Proposed location of conduit in trench floor.
4. Lightweight, modular-type prefabricated buildings, which are easy to
erect or disassemble, should be used throughout the camp.
5.
Design criteria~should emphasize simplicity, dependability, and maxi-
snow and ice).
mum use of indigenous materials (i. e.,
6. Utility lines should be located in a sub-floor utility duct (Fig. 39). This
permits trimming of the snow roof without removal of a great amount of hardware and
the r ,ulting disruption of power and sewage services.
7.
Sewage sumps should be in a separate and sealed trench, vented, and
located;a minimum distance of 500 feet from the nearest building.
8. The water well should be located a minimum distance of 1000 feet
from the sewage sump.
I_____________________
j
____
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n_ N- m-__________
ZI
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
LITERATURE CITED
Abele, G. (1963) Trafficability in snow trenches, U. S. Army Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Laboratory, Technical Report 88.
Bader, Henri and Small, F. A. (1955) Sewage disposal at ice cap installations, U. S.
Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, SIPRE Report
Z1.
(1960) Theory of densification of dry snow on high polar glaciers,
U.T-.
Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, Research
Report 69.
Barnett, James W., Major CE (1961) Construction of the Army Nuclear Power Plant,
PM-ZA, at Camp Century, Greenland (Final Report), Department of the
Army, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Nuclear Power Division.
55
SBender,
J. A. (1957) Testing of a compacted snow runway, Proceeding of the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Air Transport Division, Vol,
83, No.
1,
p. 13Z4-1 to 13Z4-ZO.
(1957) Air permeability of snow, U. S. Army Snow, Ice and Perma-
frosFtResearch Establishment, Research Report 37.
Butkovich, T. R. (1956) Strength studieF of high density snow, U. S. Army Snow,
Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, Research Report
1l.
Clark, E. F., Lt. Col. CE (1955) After operations report, 1st Engineer Arctic
Task Force, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.
(Ret), K-listory of research and development in Greenland
Z
(1960), U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (Unpublished).
Diamond, Marvin and Gerdel, R. W. (1957) Occurrence of blowing snow on the
Greenland Ice Cap, U. S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Reseairch
Establishment, Research Report
25.
Evans, Thomas C., Major CE (1960) The construction of Ca.np Century (final
report), U. S. Army Polar Research and Development Center.
Fuchs, Alfred (i959) Some structural properties of Greenland snow, U. S. Army
Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, Research Report 42.
Gerdel, R. W. and Strom, G. H. (1961) Scale model simulation of a blowing snow
environment, Proceedings, Institute of Environmental Sciences, 1961.
Hansen, B. L. and Landauer, J. K. (1958) Some results of ice cap drill hole
measurements, Symposium of Chamonix, International Union of Geodesy
and Geophysics, Association of Scientific Hydrology, 16-Z4 Sept. 1958
(Gentbrugge 1958) p. 313-317.
Irving, Frederick F., Capt. CE (1959) Design and construction of an undersnow
camp on the Greenland Ice Cap (1957), U. S. Army Polar Research and
Development Center, Report 1.
Kerr, Arnold D. (196Z) Settlement and tilting of footings on a viscous foundation,
U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Research
Report
81.
Landauer,
J.
K.
(1957)
On deformation of excavations in the Greenland w~~f
U. S.
Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Researchi Establishment, Research
Report
30.
j
Leighty, Robert D. (1963) Pictorial performance study of Camp Century (1960-1962),
U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Special
Report
56.
Nakaya, Ukichiro (1959)-Visco-elastic properties of processed snow, U. S. Army
Snow, Ice and Permatrost Research Establishment, Research Report 58.
mmmmnmmmlm 'm,
l.•m nm.nm
uml nm, n • .m,
nyn
omll
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56
CAMP CENTURY-CONCEPT AND HISTORY
LITERATURE CITED (Cont'd)
Nakaya, Ukichiro (1961) Elastic properties of processed sriow with reference to its
internal structure, U. S. Armj Gold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratorj, Research Report 82.
Ostrom, Thomas R., Lt. Col. MSC; Wilson, John J., 1st Lt. MSC; and Orr, Terry
E., 2nd Lt.
M�½3C
(196Z) Greenland waste disposal project, Camp Century
(final report), Walter Reed Army Institute of Research.
Reed, S. C. (1964) 1963 Performance study of the DEWline ice cap stations, Green-
land, U. S. Army C-id Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Technical Note (Tyipublished).
(in preparation) Spread footing foundations on snow, USA CRREL
Technical Report 1175.
Rodriguez, Raul (1963) Development of gracial subsurface water
u-pply
and sewage
systems, U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories,
Technical Report 1737-TR.
Stearns, S. Russell (1959) Snow beams and abutments using Peter snow, U. S. Army
Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, SIPRE Report 55.
Tien, Chi (1960) Analysis of a sub-ice heat sink for cooling power plants, U. S.
Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, Research Report
60.
Waterhouse, R. W. (1955) Structures for snow investigations on the Greenland Ice
U. S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment,
Ca
E Report
27.
(1960)Cut-and-cover trenching in. snow, U. S. Army Snow, Ice
and Permafrost Research Establishment, SIPRE Report 76.
Tobiasson, Wayne N. ; Scott, Barrat G. (1963) Camp Centur
movement record, U. S. Army Cold Regions Research an Engineering
Laboratory, Technical Report 121.
Wuori, Albert F. (1963) Snow stabilization for r9ads and runways, U. S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Technical Report 83.
Yen, Yin-Chao and Bender,
J.
A. (19621 Cooling of an undersnow camp, U. S.
Army Cold Regions Research anEgneering Lab oratory, Research
Report 95.
(1963) Effe~ctive thermal conductivity of ventilited snow,
U. S. Army -Cold Regions Re.earch and Engineeri't L-.1oratory, Researc-
Report 103.
J
n
i
!1J•
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57
4.
APPENY'IX A:
1Ha~et
CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF EVENTS
Dates
1 Sep 58
1 Sep - 15 Nov 58
14 Jun 58 - 31 Jan 59
15 Nov 58 - 15 Feb 59
initiation of project
Prel-nina:-y design
of
Camp Century
-udy ;..'ntract for PMvl2A Nlicl1r Plant
F-nal design of those poxcions of Century to be
constructed in 1959
Procuremnent of construction materials to be
,niplaced in 1959 and o.rtions of those required
for 1960
Letting
of
contract to ALCO Products, Inc. for
dcioz', fabrication, and testing of PM-ZA
Nuclear P-iLer.t
Letting of contract to Metcalf and Eddy, for
design of support facilities for PM-ZA
Departure of 1959 construction force to Greenland
Selection of site for Century
Organization of materials at Tuto and buildup of
stockpiled supplies at Centur),
First construction troops arrive at Century
Construction of temporary surface camp at Century
to house construction troops
Experimentation to develop practical trenching
techniques
Construction of 10% of the permanent camp (5
trenches and 5 buildings)
Closing of Century for the winter of 1959-60
Return of construction troops to the United States
for the winter of 1959-60
Final design of remainder of Century
Procurement of remainder of materials
Training of Peter miller operators at Houghton,
Michigan
1 Dec 58-
20
May 59
Z3 Jan 59
26
Feb 59
15 Apr - 15 May 59
17 May 59
13 May
-
14 Jun 59
14 Jun 59
14 Jun-10 Jul
59
Z5 Jun -15
5 Jul
-
Jul 59
1 Sep 59
1 Sep 59
2
-
7 Sep 59
-
1 Aug
1 Sep 59
-
1 Oct 59
I
Dec 59
1 Apr 60
1 Jan 60
"Training
of
reactor crew at ALCO Products plant
during I-st assembly of the PM-2A
5 Jan - 20 May 60
7 A r - 7 May 60
10
Apr
-
10
May 60
17 Apr 60
1 -
20
May 60
Departure of 1960 construction force to Greenland
"Organization
of materials
at Tuto and buildup of
stockpiled supplies at Century
Reopening of temporary surface camp at Century
Arrival of vulk
of
1960 construction troops at
Century
I
L
*Consisted mainly of training Peter miller operators.
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58
Event
APPENDIXA A
Dates
10 -2.5
May
60
Expansion of temporary surface camp to accomodate
increased construction force
1960
start of construction on Century
1Z May
60
28
Apr
-
Z7
Jun
60
i
Disassembly, packing, and loading of PM-ZA Nuclear
N.
Y. for
shipment to Marine Fiddler at Buffalo,
SPower Plant on
USNS
Greenland
Shipment of one PM-ZA airblast cooler to Greenland
S!
by C-124 aircraft to demonstrate its air transport-
iability
o7
of
USNS
Marine Fiddler with PM-ZA at Thule,
SArrival
GreenL-,nd
May
60
10
Jul
60
11 Jul -
1
Sep
60
i
Transport of PM-ZA components and materials to
Si
Century
i
'
:Departure
Installation of PM-ZA at Century
Arrival of crew to operate
completed camp
of Century construction troops
15
Jul
- I
Oct
60
9
Sep
60
12 Sep
- 15
Oct
60
Completion of non-nuclear portions of Century
Completion of installation of PM-ZA (including
additional shielding)
Acceptance of PM-ZA by USAPR&DC
1 Oct 60
A
6
Feb 61
8 Mar 61
I
.7!
-sk
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59
APPENDIX B: ABOVE-SURFACE COVERED ACCESS TO
CUT-AND-COVER TRENCHES
by
Wayne Tobiasson
Figures Bl-B4 illustrate the zbove-surface covered entrance concept devised
by
USA CRREL to provide a year-round access to ice cap facilities.
Using plywood forms, two 14-ft high processed snow abutments were erected
12
ft apart. The abutment snow consisted of backcast Peter miller snow picked up by
a traxcavator and dumped between the forms. A vibratory compactor wac used to
break up lumps of snow. After Z4 hours the forms were removed and reerected for
the next pour. Mach abutment was poured in three sections.
A timber arch seat was placed on each abutment and 14 ft span corrugated metal
arch used
Lo
coverthe arch.
cessed snow over the trench. A standard Peter miller blew 6 to
1Z
inches of pro-
A timber door frame was constructed at the open end of the ramp and a three-
piece plywood door erected to provide personnel and vehicular access whiie pre-
venting drift snow from depositing in the end of the ramp.
The abutments have been instrumented for deformation.
C
-;
I
Figure Bl.
Erc.Etion of 14-ft high plywood forms.
Figure BZ. Traxcavator filling
plywood forms with Peter-
imiller snow.
____-
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60
APPENDIX B
I
_
Figure B3.
Peter miller covering arch.
~V
Figure B4.
Vehicular access door.
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_Una
siAed ......
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-
I.
ORIGINATING
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s.
REPORT
SECURITrY
C LASSIFICATION
U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, N. H.
3.
REPORT TITLE
Unclassified
2
GROUP
CAMP CENTURY-EVOLUTION OF CONCEPT AND HISTORY O
CONSTRUCTION, AND PERFORMANCE
4. DESCRIPTIVE
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report
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inclusive
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Technical Report
S. AUTHOR(S)
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firet
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Clark, E. F.
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CONTRACT
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U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and
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13.
ABSTRACT
This report tells the story of Camp Century, an effort to learn how to construct
military facilities on the Greenland Ice Cap. It describes briefly the research
done by several laboratories, scientists, and engineers in achieving this objec-
tive. It discusses the development of concepts, methods, and engineering
techniques which made the construction of Camp Century possible. Engineering
performance of the camp and its facilities is summarized, and some of the more
important reports resulting from the effort are referenced. It is concluded that
subsurface ice-cap camps are feasible and practicable, that nuclear power offers
significant advantages in reducing the logistical burden of supporting isolated,
remote military facilities, and that the wealth of data and experience obtained
from the Camp Century project will be of inestimable value in the development
of designs for future ice-cap camps.
ID
LD
IJAN
1473
Unclassified
Security Classificaton
-U__
___ ___ ____-~--~-----~~-
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Security Classification
1
14.
KEY WORDS-
LINK
A
�½O
LE
WT
LINK 8
ROLE
WT
LINK C�½
ROLE
V
.
Camp Century
Military operations
-Greenland
-Polar regions
Snow (construction material)
Utilities (polar regions)
Construction - Greenland
Subsurface ice-cap camps
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